2000-03-31 05:27:42 +02:00
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$Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.20 2000/05/02 20:01:53 thomas Exp $
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2000-03-31 05:27:42 +02:00
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-->
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1999-06-09 15:44:59 +02:00
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<chapter id="syntax">
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<title>SQL Syntax</title>
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<abstract>
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<para>
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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A description of the general syntax of SQL.
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</para>
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</abstract>
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL</acronym> manipulates sets of data. The language is
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composed of various <firstterm>key words</firstterm>. Arithmetic
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and procedural expressions are allowed. We will cover these topics
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in this chapter; subsequent chapters will include details on data
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types, functions, and operators.
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</para>
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<sect1>
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<title>Key Words</title>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL92</acronym> defines <firstterm>key words</firstterm>
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for the language
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which have specific meaning. Some key words are
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<firstterm>reserved</firstterm>, which indicates that they are
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restricted to appear in only certain contexts. Other key words are
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<firstterm>not restricted</firstterm>, which indicates that in certain
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contexts they
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have a specific meaning but are not otherwise constrained.
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</para>
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<para>
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<productname>Postgres</productname> implements an extended subset of the
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<acronym>SQL92</acronym> and <acronym>SQL3</acronym> languages. Some language
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elements are not as restricted in this implementation as is
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called for in the language standards, in part due
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to the extensibility features of <productname>Postgres</productname>.
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</para>
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<para>
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Information on <acronym>SQL92</acronym> and <acronym>SQL3</acronym> key words
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is derived from <xref linkend="DATE97" endterm="DATE97">.
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</para>
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<sect2>
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<title>Reserved Key Words</title>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL92</acronym> and <acronym>SQL3</acronym> have
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<firstterm>reserved key words</firstterm> which are not allowed
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as identifiers and not allowed in any usage other than as fundamental
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tokens in <acronym>SQL</acronym> statements.
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<productname>Postgres</productname> has additional key words
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which have similar restrictions. In particular, these key words
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are not allowed as column or table names, though in some cases
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they are allowed to be column labels (i.e. in AS clauses).
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</para>
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<tip>
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<para>
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Any string can be specified as an identifier if surrounded by
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double quotes (<quote>like this!</quote>). Some care is required since
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such an identifier will be case sensitive
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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and will retain embedded whitespace and most other special characters.
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</para>
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</tip>
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<para>
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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reserved words which are neither <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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nor <acronym>SQL3</acronym> reserved words. These are allowed
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to be present as column labels, but not as identifiers:
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<programlisting>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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ABORT ANALYZE
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BINARY
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CLUSTER CONSTRAINT COPY
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DO
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EXPLAIN EXTEND
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LISTEN LOAD LOCK
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MOVE
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NEW NONE NOTIFY
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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OFFSET
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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RESET
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SETOF SHOW
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UNLISTEN UNTIL
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VACUUM VERBOSE
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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reserved words which are also <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> reserved words, and which
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are allowed to be present as column labels, but not as identifiers:
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<programlisting>
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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ALL ANY ASC BETWEEN BIT BOTH
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CASE CAST CHAR CHARACTER CHECK COALESCE COLLATE COLUMN
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CONSTRAINT CROSS CURRENT CURRENT_DATE CURRENT_TIME
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CURRENT_TIMESTAMP CURRENT_USER
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DEC DECIMAL DEFAULT DESC DISTINCT
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ELSE END EXCEPT EXISTS EXTRACT
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FALSE FLOAT FOR FOREIGN FROM FULL
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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GLOBAL GROUP
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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HAVING
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IN INNER INTERSECT INTO IS
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JOIN
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LEADING LEFT LIKE LOCAL
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NATURAL NCHAR NOT NULL NULLIF NUMERIC
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ON OR ORDER OUTER OVERLAPS
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POSITION PRECISION PRIMARY PUBLIC
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REFERENCES RIGHT
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SELECT SESSION_USER SOME SUBSTRING
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TABLE THEN TO TRANSACTION TRIM TRUE
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UNION UNIQUE USER
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VARCHAR
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WHEN WHERE
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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reserved words which are also <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> reserved words:
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<programlisting>
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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ADD ALTER AND AS
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BEGIN BY
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CASCADE CLOSE COMMIT CREATE CURSOR
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1999-10-12 15:58:53 +02:00
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DECLARE DEFAULT DELETE DESC DISTINCT DROP
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1998-12-18 17:13:45 +01:00
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EXECUTE EXISTS EXTRACT
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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FETCH FLOAT FOR FROM FULL
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GRANT
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HAVING
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IN INNER INSERT INTERVAL INTO IS
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JOIN
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LEADING LEFT LIKE LOCAL
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1999-10-12 15:58:53 +02:00
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NAMES NATIONAL NATURAL NCHAR NO NOT NULL
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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ON OR OUTER
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PARTIAL PRIMARY PRIVILEGES PROCEDURE PUBLIC
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REFERENCES REVOKE RIGHT ROLLBACK
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SELECT SET SUBSTRING
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1998-10-14 18:28:53 +02:00
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TO TRAILING TRIM
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1999-10-12 15:58:53 +02:00
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UNION UNIQUE UPDATE USING
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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VALUES VARCHAR VARYING VIEW
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WHERE WITH WORK
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are <acronym>SQL92</acronym> reserved key words which
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are not <productname>Postgres</productname> reserved key words, but which
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if used as function names are always translated into the function
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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<function>CHAR_LENGTH</function>:
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<programlisting>
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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CHARACTER_LENGTH
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are <acronym>SQL92</acronym> or <acronym>SQL3</acronym>
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reserved key words which
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are not <productname>Postgres</productname> reserved key words, but
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if used as type names are always translated into an alternate, native type:
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<programlisting>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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BOOLEAN DOUBLE FLOAT INT INTEGER INTERVAL REAL SMALLINT
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are not keywords of any kind, but when used in the
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context of a type name are translated into a native
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<productname>Postgres</productname> type, and when used in the
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context of a function name are translated into a native function:
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<programlisting>
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DATETIME TIMESPAN
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</programlisting>
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(translated to <type>TIMESTAMP</type> and <type>INTERVAL</type>,
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respectively). This feature is intended to help with
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transitioning to v7.0, and will be removed in the next full
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release (likely v7.1).
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</para>
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are either <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> reserved key words
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which are not key words in <productname>Postgres</productname>.
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These have no proscribed usage in <productname>Postgres</productname>
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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at the time of writing (v7.0) but may become reserved key words in the
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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future:
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<note>
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<para>
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Some of these key words represent functions in <acronym>SQL92</acronym>.
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These functions are defined in <productname>Postgres</productname>,
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but the parser does not consider the names to be key words and they are allowed
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in other contexts.
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</para>
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</note>
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<programlisting>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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ALLOCATE ARE ASSERTION AT AUTHORIZATION AVG
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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BIT_LENGTH
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CASCADED CATALOG CHAR_LENGTH CHARACTER_LENGTH COLLATION
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CONNECT CONNECTION CONTINUE CONVERT CORRESPONDING COUNT
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CURRENT_SESSION
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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DATE DEALLOCATE DEC DESCRIBE DESCRIPTOR
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1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
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DIAGNOSTICS DISCONNECT DOMAIN
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1999-10-12 15:58:53 +02:00
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ESCAPE EXCEPT EXCEPTION EXEC EXTERNAL
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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FIRST FOUND
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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GET GO GOTO
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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IDENTITY INDICATOR INPUT INTERSECT
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1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
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LAST LOWER
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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MAX MIN MODULE
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OCTET_LENGTH OPEN OUTPUT OVERLAPS
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PREPARE PRESERVE
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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ROWS
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1999-10-12 15:58:53 +02:00
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SCHEMA SECTION SESSION SIZE SOME
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1998-12-18 17:13:45 +01:00
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SQL SQLCODE SQLERROR SQLSTATE SUM SYSTEM_USER
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TEMPORARY TRANSLATE TRANSLATION
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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UNKNOWN UPPER USAGE
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VALUE
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1998-12-18 17:13:45 +01:00
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WHENEVER WRITE
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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</sect2>
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<sect2>
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<title>Non-reserved Keywords</title>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL92</acronym> and <acronym>SQL3</acronym> have
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<firstterm>non-reserved keywords</firstterm> which have
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1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
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a prescribed meaning in the language but which are also allowed
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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as identifiers.
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<productname>Postgres</productname> has additional keywords
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which allow similar unrestricted usage.
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In particular, these keywords
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are allowed as column or table names.
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</para>
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<para>
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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non-reserved key words which are neither <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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nor <acronym>SQL3</acronym> non-reserved key words:
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<programlisting>
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ACCESS AFTER AGGREGATE
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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BACKWARD BEFORE
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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CACHE COMMENT CREATEDB CREATEUSER CYCLE
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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DATABASE DELIMITERS
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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EACH ENCODING EXCLUSIVE
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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FORCE FORWARD FUNCTION
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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HANDLER
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INCREMENT INDEX INHERITS INSENSITIVE INSTEAD ISNULL
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LANCOMPILER LOCATION
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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MAXVALUE MINVALUE MODE
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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NOCREATEDB NOCREATEUSER NOTHING NOTIFY NOTNULL
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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OIDS OPERATOR
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PASSWORD PROCEDURAL
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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RECIPE REINDEX RENAME RETURNS ROW RULE
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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SEQUENCE SERIAL SHARE START STATEMENT STDIN STDOUT
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2000-05-02 22:02:03 +02:00
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TEMP TRUSTED
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UNLISTEN UNTIL
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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VALID VERSION
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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non-reserved key words which are <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> reserved key words:
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<programlisting>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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ABSOLUTE ACTION
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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CONSTRAINTS
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DAY DEFERRABLE DEFERRED
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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HOUR
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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IMMEDIATE INITIALLY INSENSITIVE ISOLATION
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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KEY
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1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
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LANGUAGE LEVEL
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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MATCH MINUTE MONTH
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NEXT
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OF ONLY OPTION
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1999-10-01 17:21:08 +02:00
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PENDANT PRIOR PRIVILEGES
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READ RELATIVE RESTRICT
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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SCROLL SECOND
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1998-10-14 18:28:53 +02:00
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TIME TIMESTAMP TIMEZONE_HOUR TIMEZONE_MINUTE TRIGGER
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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YEAR
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ZONE
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<para>
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The following are <productname>Postgres</productname>
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non-reserved key words which are also either <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
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or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> non-reserved key words:
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
|
1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
COMMITTED SERIALIZABLE TYPE
|
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
|
1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The following are either <acronym>SQL92</acronym>
|
|
|
|
or <acronym>SQL3</acronym> non-reserved key words which are not
|
|
|
|
key words of any kind in <productname>Postgres</productname>:
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
|
1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
ADA
|
|
|
|
C CATALOG_NAME CHARACTER_SET_CATALOG CHARACTER_SET_NAME
|
1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
|
|
|
CHARACTER_SET_SCHEMA CLASS_ORIGIN COBOL COLLATION_CATALOG
|
|
|
|
COLLATION_NAME COLLATION_SCHEMA COLUMN_NAME
|
|
|
|
COMMAND_FUNCTION CONDITION_NUMBER
|
|
|
|
CONNECTION_NAME CONSTRAINT_CATALOG CONSTRAINT_NAME
|
|
|
|
CONSTRAINT_SCHEMA CURSOR_NAME
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
DATA DATE_TIME_INTERVAL_CODE DATE_TIME_INTERVAL_PRECISION
|
1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
|
|
|
DYNAMIC_FUNCTION
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
FORTRAN
|
|
|
|
LENGTH
|
|
|
|
MESSAGE_LENGTH MESSAGE_OCTET_LENGTH MORE MUMPS
|
|
|
|
NAME NULLABLE NUMBER
|
|
|
|
PAD PASCAL PLI
|
|
|
|
REPEATABLE RETURNED_LENGTH RETURNED_OCTET_LENGTH
|
1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
|
|
|
RETURNED_SQLSTATE ROW_COUNT
|
|
|
|
SCALE SCHEMA_NAME SERVER_NAME SPACE SUBCLASS_ORIGIN
|
1998-09-30 07:41:54 +02:00
|
|
|
TABLE_NAME
|
|
|
|
UNCOMMITTED UNNAMED
|
1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
<sect1>
|
|
|
|
<title>Comments</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A <firstterm>comment</firstterm>
|
2000-03-18 19:03:12 +01:00
|
|
|
is an arbitrary sequence of characters beginning with double dashes
|
|
|
|
and extending to the end of the line, e.g.:
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
-- This is a standard SQL comment
|
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
We also support C-style block comments, e.g.:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
/* multi
|
|
|
|
line
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
comment
|
|
|
|
*/
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
2000-03-18 19:03:12 +01:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A comment beginning with "/*" extends to the first occurrence of "*/".
|
|
|
|
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>
|
|
|
|
<title>Names</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
2000-03-31 01:42:34 +02:00
|
|
|
Names in SQL must begin with a letter
|
|
|
|
(<literal>a</literal>-<literal>z</literal>) or underscore
|
|
|
|
(<literal>_</literal>).
|
|
|
|
Subsequent characters in a name can be letters, digits
|
|
|
|
(<literal>0</literal>-<literal>9</literal>),
|
|
|
|
or underscores. The system uses no more than NAMEDATALEN-1 characters
|
|
|
|
of a name; longer names can be written in queries, but they will be
|
|
|
|
truncated.
|
|
|
|
By default, NAMEDATALEN is 32 so the maximum name length is 31 (but
|
|
|
|
at the time the system is built, NAMEDATALEN can be changed in
|
|
|
|
src/include/postgres_ext.h).
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
2000-03-18 19:03:12 +01:00
|
|
|
Names containing other characters may be formed by surrounding them
|
2000-03-31 01:42:34 +02:00
|
|
|
with double quotes (<literal>"</literal>). For example, table or column
|
|
|
|
names may contain
|
2000-03-18 19:03:12 +01:00
|
|
|
otherwise disallowed characters such as spaces, ampersands, etc. if
|
|
|
|
quoted. Quoting a name also makes it case-sensitive,
|
|
|
|
whereas unquoted names are always folded to lower case. For example,
|
|
|
|
the names <literal>FOO</literal>, <literal>foo</literal>
|
|
|
|
and <literal>"foo"</literal> are
|
|
|
|
considered the same by <productname>Postgres</productname>, but
|
|
|
|
<literal>"Foo"</literal> is a different name.
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
2000-03-31 01:42:34 +02:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
Double quotes can also be used to protect a name that would otherwise
|
|
|
|
be taken to be an SQL keyword. For example, <literal>IN</literal>
|
|
|
|
is a keyword but <literal>"IN"</literal> is a name.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>
|
|
|
|
<title>Constants</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
|
|
|
There are three <firstterm>implicitly typed constants</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
for use in <productname>Postgres</productname>: strings, integers,
|
|
|
|
and floating point numbers. Constants can
|
|
|
|
also be specified with explicit types, which can enable more
|
|
|
|
accurate representation and more efficient handling by the
|
|
|
|
backend. The implicit constants are described below; explicit
|
|
|
|
constants are discussed afterwards.
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>String Constants</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
<firstterm>Strings</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
in SQL are arbitrary sequences of ASCII characters bounded by single
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
quotes ("'", e.g. <literal>'This is a string'</literal>).
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
SQL92 allows single quotes to be embedded in strings by typing two
|
2000-01-25 08:04:04 +01:00
|
|
|
adjacent single quotes (e.g. <literal>'Dianne''s horse'</literal>).
|
|
|
|
In <productname>Postgres</productname> single quotes may alternatively
|
|
|
|
be escaped with a backslash ("\", e.g.
|
|
|
|
<literal>'Dianne\'s horse'</literal>). To include a
|
|
|
|
backslash in a string constant, type two backslashes.
|
|
|
|
Non-printing characters may also be embedded within strings by
|
|
|
|
prepending them with a backslash
|
|
|
|
(e.g. <literal>'\<replaceable>tab</replaceable>'</literal>).
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Integer Constants</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
<firstterm>Integer constants</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
in SQL are collection of ASCII digits with no decimal point. Legal
|
|
|
|
values range from -2147483648 to +2147483647. This will vary
|
|
|
|
depending on the operating system and host machine.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
Note that larger integers can be specified for <type>int8</type>
|
|
|
|
by using <acronym>SQL92</acronym> string notation or
|
|
|
|
<productname>Postgres</productname> type notation:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
int8 '4000000000' -- string style
|
|
|
|
'4000000000'::int8 -- Postgres (historical) style
|
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Floating Point Constants</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
<firstterm>Floating point constants</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
consist of an integer part, a decimal point, and a fraction part or
|
|
|
|
scientific notation of the following format:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
{<replaceable>dig</replaceable>}.{<replaceable>dig</replaceable>} [e [+-] {<replaceable>dig</replaceable>}]
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable>dig</replaceable> is one or more digits.
|
|
|
|
You must include at least one <replaceable>dig</replaceable> after the
|
|
|
|
period and after the [+-] if you use those options. An exponent with
|
|
|
|
a missing mantissa has a mantissa of 1 inserted. There may be no
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
extra characters embedded in the string.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
Floating point constaints are of type
|
|
|
|
<type>float8</type>. <type>float4</type> can be specified
|
|
|
|
explicitly by using <acronym>SQL92</acronym> string notation or
|
|
|
|
<productname>Postgres</productname> type notation:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
float4 '1.23' -- string style
|
|
|
|
'1.23'::float4 -- Postgres (historical) style
|
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Constants of Postgres User-Defined Types</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A constant of an
|
|
|
|
<emphasis>arbitrary</emphasis>
|
1999-09-29 07:22:25 +02:00
|
|
|
type can be entered using any one of the following notations:
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>type</replaceable> '<replaceable>string</replaceable>'
|
|
|
|
'<replaceable>string</replaceable>'::<replaceable>type</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
CAST '<replaceable>string</replaceable>' AS <replaceable>type</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The value inside the string is passed to the input
|
1999-09-01 04:37:40 +02:00
|
|
|
conversion routine for the type called
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>type</replaceable>. The result is a
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
constant of the indicated type. The explicit typecast may be omitted
|
|
|
|
if there is no ambiguity as to the type the constant must be, in which
|
|
|
|
case it is automatically coerced.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Array constants</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
<firstterm>Array constants</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
are arrays of any Postgres type, including other arrays, string
|
|
|
|
constants, etc. The general format of an array constant is the
|
|
|
|
following:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
{<replaceable>val1</replaceable><replaceable>delim</replaceable><replaceable>val2</replaceable><replaceable>delim</replaceable>}
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable>delim</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is the delimiter for the type stored in the <literal>pg_type</literal> class.
|
|
|
|
(For built-in types, this is the comma character (","). An
|
|
|
|
example of an array constant is
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
|
|
{{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}}
|
|
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
This constant is a two-dimensional, 3 by 3 array consisting of three
|
|
|
|
sub-arrays of integers.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
Individual array elements can and should be placed between quotation
|
|
|
|
marks whenever possible to avoid ambiguity problems with respect to
|
|
|
|
leading white space.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>
|
|
|
|
<title>Fields and Columns</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Fields</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A <firstterm>field</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
is either an attribute of a given class or one of the following:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<variablelist>
|
|
|
|
<varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
<term>oid</term>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
stands for the unique identifier of an instance which is added by
|
|
|
|
Postgres to all instances automatically. Oids are not reused and are 32
|
|
|
|
bit quantities.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
</varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
<term>xmin</term>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The identity of the inserting transaction.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
</varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
<term>xmax</term>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The identity of the deleting transaction.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
</varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
<term>cmin</term>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The command identifier within the transaction.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
</varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
<term>cmax</term>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The identity of the deleting command.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
</varlistentry>
|
|
|
|
</variablelist>
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
For further information on these fields consult
|
|
|
|
<xref linkend="STON87a" endterm="STON87a">.
|
|
|
|
Times are represented internally as instances of the
|
|
|
|
<literal>abstime</literal>
|
|
|
|
data type. Transaction and command identifiers are 32 bit quantities.
|
|
|
|
Transactions are assigned sequentially starting at 512.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Columns</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A <firstterm>column</firstterm> is a construct of the form:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>instance</replaceable>{.<replaceable>composite_field</replaceable>}.<replaceable>field</replaceable> `['<replaceable>number</replaceable>`]'
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>instance</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
identifies a particular class and can be thought of as standing for
|
|
|
|
the instances of that class. An instance variable is either a class
|
|
|
|
name, a surrogate for a class defined by means of a FROM clause,
|
|
|
|
or the keyword NEW or CURRENT.
|
|
|
|
NEW and CURRENT can only appear in the action portion of a rule, while
|
|
|
|
other instance variables can be used in any SQL statement.
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>composite_field</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is a field of of one of the Postgres composite types,
|
|
|
|
while successive composite fields address attributes in the
|
|
|
|
class(s) to which the composite field evaluates. Lastly,
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>field</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is a normal (base type) field in the class(s) last addressed. If
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>field</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is of type <literal>array</literal>,
|
|
|
|
then the optional <replaceable>number</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
designator indicates a specific element in the array. If no number is
|
|
|
|
indicated, then all array elements are returned.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>
|
|
|
|
<title>Operators</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
Any built-in system, or user-defined operator may be used in SQL.
|
|
|
|
For the list of built-in and system operators consult
|
1999-08-06 15:48:38 +02:00
|
|
|
<xref linkend="operators" endterm="operators-title">.
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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For a list of user-defined operators consult your system administrator
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or run a query on the <literal>pg_operator</literal> class.
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Parentheses may be used for arbitrary grouping of operators in expressions.
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</para>
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</sect1>
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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<sect1>
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<title>Expressions</title>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL92</acronym> allows <firstterm>expressions</firstterm>
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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to transform data in tables. Expressions may contain operators
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1999-08-06 15:48:38 +02:00
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(see <xref linkend="operators" endterm="operators-title">
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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for more details) and functions
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1999-08-06 15:48:38 +02:00
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(<xref linkend="functions" endterm="functions-title"> has
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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more information).
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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</para>
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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<para>
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An expression is one of the following:
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<simplelist>
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<member>( a_expr )</member>
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<member>constant</member>
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<member>attribute</member>
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<member><replaceable>a_expr</replaceable> <replaceable>binary_operator</replaceable> <replaceable>a_expr</replaceable></member>
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<member><replaceable>a_expr</replaceable> <replaceable>right_unary_operator</replaceable></member>
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<member><replaceable>left_unary_operator</replaceable> <replaceable>a_expr</replaceable></member>
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<member>parameter</member>
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1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
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<member>functional expression</member>
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<member>aggregate expression</member>
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</simplelist>
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</para>
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<para>
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1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
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We have already discussed constants and attributes. The three kinds of
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operator expressions indicate respectively binary (infix), right-unary
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(suffix) and left-unary (prefix) operators. The following sections
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discuss the remaining options.
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1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
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</para>
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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<sect2>
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<title>Parameters</title>
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<para>
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A <firstterm>parameter</firstterm>
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is used to indicate a parameter in a SQL function. Typically this
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is used in SQL function definition statement. The form of a
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parameter is:
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<synopsis>
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$<replaceable class="parameter">number</replaceable>
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</synopsis>
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</para>
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<para>
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For example, consider the definition of a function,
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<function>dept</function>, as
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<programlisting>
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CREATE FUNCTION dept (name)
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RETURNS dept
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AS 'select * from
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dept where name=$1'
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LANGUAGE 'sql';
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</programlisting>
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</para>
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</sect2>
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<sect2>
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<title>Functional Expressions</title>
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<para>
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A <firstterm>functional expression</firstterm>
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|
is the name of a legal SQL function, followed by its argument list
|
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enclosed in parentheses:
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|
<synopsis>
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<replaceable>function</replaceable> (<replaceable>a_expr</replaceable> [, <replaceable>a_expr</replaceable> ... ] )
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1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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</synopsis>
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</para>
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<para>
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|
For example, the following computes the square root of an employee
|
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|
salary:
|
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|
<programlisting>
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|
sqrt(emp.salary)
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|
</programlisting>
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</para>
|
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|
|
</sect2>
|
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|
|
<sect2>
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
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|
<title>Aggregate Expressions</title>
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
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|
<para>
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
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|
An <firstterm>aggregate expression</firstterm> represents the application
|
|
|
|
of an aggregate function across the rows selected by a query.
|
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|
|
An aggregate function reduces multiple inputs to a single output value,
|
|
|
|
such as the sum or average of the inputs.
|
|
|
|
The syntax of an aggregate expression is one of the following:
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
|
|
|
<simplelist>
|
|
|
|
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (<replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
|
2000-02-21 02:20:41 +01:00
|
|
|
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (ALL <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
|
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|
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (DISTINCT <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
|
|
|
|
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> ( * )</member>
|
|
|
|
</simplelist>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> is a previously defined
|
|
|
|
aggregate, and <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is any expression
|
|
|
|
that doesn't itself contain an aggregate expression.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The first form of aggregate expression invokes the aggregate across all
|
|
|
|
input rows for which the given expression yields a non-null value.
|
2000-02-21 02:20:41 +01:00
|
|
|
The second form is the same as the first, since ALL is the default.
|
|
|
|
The third form invokes the aggregate for all distinct non-null values
|
1999-12-13 18:39:38 +01:00
|
|
|
of the expression found in the input rows. The last form invokes the
|
|
|
|
aggregate once for each input row regardless of null or non-null values;
|
|
|
|
since no particular input value is specified, it is generally only useful
|
|
|
|
for the count() aggregate.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
For example, count(*) yields the total number of input rows;
|
|
|
|
count(f1) yields the number of input rows in which f1 is non-null;
|
|
|
|
count(distinct f1) yields the number of distinct non-null values of f1.
|
1999-07-22 17:11:05 +02:00
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Target List</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A <firstterm>target list</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
is a parenthesized, comma-separated list of one or more elements, each
|
|
|
|
of which must be of the form:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>a_expr</replaceable> [ AS <replaceable>result_attname</replaceable> ]
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable>result_attname</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is the name of the attribute to be created (or an
|
|
|
|
already existing attribute name in the case of update statements.) If
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>result_attname</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is not present, then
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>a_expr</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
must contain only one attribute name which is assumed to be the name
|
|
|
|
of the result field. In <productname>Postgres</productname>
|
|
|
|
default naming is only used if
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>a_expr</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is an attribute.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>Qualification</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
A <firstterm>qualification</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
consists of any number of clauses connected by the logical operators:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<simplelist>
|
|
|
|
<member>NOT</member>
|
|
|
|
<member>AND</member>
|
|
|
|
<member>OR</member>
|
|
|
|
</simplelist>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A clause is an <replaceable>a_expr</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
that evaluates to a <literal>boolean</literal> over a set of instances.
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
|
|
<title>From List</title>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
|
|
The <firstterm>from list</firstterm>
|
|
|
|
is a comma-separated list of <firstterm>from expressions</firstterm>.
|
|
|
|
Each "from expression" is of the form:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
[ <replaceable>class_reference</replaceable> ] <replaceable>instance_variable</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
{, [ <replaceable>class_ref</replaceable> ] <replaceable>instance_variable</replaceable>... }
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable>class_reference</replaceable>
|
|
|
|
is of the form
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
|
|
<replaceable>class_name</replaceable> [ * ]
|
|
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The "from expression"
|
|
|
|
defines one or more instance variables to range over the class
|
|
|
|
indicated in <replaceable>class_reference</replaceable>.
|
|
|
|
One can also request
|
|
|
|
the instance variable to range over all classes that are beneath the
|
|
|
|
indicated class in the inheritance hierarchy by postpending the
|
|
|
|
designator asterisk ("*").
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
</sect2>
|
1999-05-12 09:32:47 +02:00
|
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
</chapter>
|
1999-04-06 17:41:20 +02:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<!-- Keep this comment at the end of the file
|
|
|
|
Local variables:
|
2000-03-31 05:27:42 +02:00
|
|
|
mode:sgml
|
1999-04-06 17:41:20 +02:00
|
|
|
sgml-omittag:nil
|
|
|
|
sgml-shorttag:t
|
|
|
|
sgml-minimize-attributes:nil
|
|
|
|
sgml-always-quote-attributes:t
|
|
|
|
sgml-indent-step:1
|
|
|
|
sgml-indent-data:t
|
|
|
|
sgml-parent-document:nil
|
|
|
|
sgml-default-dtd-file:"./reference.ced"
|
|
|
|
sgml-exposed-tags:nil
|
2000-03-31 05:27:42 +02:00
|
|
|
sgml-local-catalogs:("/usr/lib/sgml/catalog")
|
1999-04-06 17:41:20 +02:00
|
|
|
sgml-local-ecat-files:nil
|
|
|
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End:
|
|
|
|
-->
|