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Add some documentation for constraint exclusion and basic partitioning. 

From Simon Riggs; cleanup and editorialization by Neil Conway.
This commit is contained in:
Neil Conway 2005-11-01 23:19:05 +00:00
parent b524cb36ac
commit eddcd492fe
2 changed files with 718 additions and 101 deletions
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45
doc/src/sgml/config.sgml
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@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
<!--
$PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/config.sgml,v 1.33 2005/10/26 12:55:07 momjian Exp $
$PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/config.sgml,v 1.34 2005/11/01 23:19:05 neilc Exp $
-->
<chapter Id="runtime-config">
<title>Server Configuration</title>
@ -1974,11 +1974,11 @@ archive_command = 'copy "%p" /mnt/server/archivedir/"%f"' # Windows
</para>
<para>
When this parameter is <literal>on</>, the planner compares query
conditions with table CHECK constraints, and omits scanning tables
where the conditions contradict the constraints. (Presently
this is done only for child tables of inheritance scans.) For
example:
When this parameter is <literal>on</>, the planner compares
query conditions with table <literal>CHECK</> constraints, and
omits scanning tables where the conditions contradict the
constraints. (Presently this is done only for child tables of
inheritance scans.) For example:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE parent(key integer, ...);
@ -1988,23 +1988,30 @@ CREATE TABLE child2000(check (key between 2000 and 2999)) INHERITS(parent);
SELECT * FROM parent WHERE key = 2400;
</programlisting>
With constraint exclusion enabled, this SELECT will not scan
<structname>child1000</> at all. This can improve performance when
inheritance is used to build partitioned tables.
With constraint exclusion enabled, this <command>SELECT</>
will not scan <structname>child1000</> at all. This can
improve performance when inheritance is used to build
partitioned tables.
</para>
<para>
Currently, <varname>constraint_exclusion</> defaults to
<literal>off</>, because it risks incorrect results if
query plans are cached --- if a table constraint is changed or dropped,
the previously generated plan might now be wrong, and there is no
built-in mechanism to force re-planning. (This deficiency will
probably be addressed in a future
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> release.) Another reason
for keeping it off is that the constraint checks are relatively
Currently, <varname>constraint_exclusion</> is disabled by
default because it risks incorrect results if query plans are
cached &mdash; if a table constraint is changed or dropped,
the previously generated plan might now be wrong, and there is
no built-in mechanism to force re-planning. (This deficiency
will probably be addressed in a future
<productname>PostgreSQL</> release.) Another reason for
keeping it off is that the constraint checks are relatively
expensive, and in many circumstances will yield no savings.
It is recommended to turn this on only if you are actually using
partitioned tables designed to take advantage of the feature.
It is recommended to turn this on only if you are actually
using partitioned tables designed to take advantage of the
feature.
</para>
<para>
Refer to <xref linkend="ce-partitioning"> for more information
on using constraint exclusion and partitioning.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>

774
doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml
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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
<!-- $PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml,v 1.45 2005/10/23 19:29:49 tgl Exp $ -->
<!-- $PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml,v 1.46 2005/11/01 23:19:05 neilc Exp $ -->
<chapter id="ddl">
<title>Data Definition</title>
@ -398,6 +398,13 @@ CREATE TABLE products (
ensure that a column does not contain null values, the not-null
constraint described in the next section can be used.
</para>
<para>
Check constraints can also be used to enhance performance with
very large tables, when used in conjunction with the <xref
linkend="guc-constraint-exclusion"> parameter. This is discussed
in more detail in <xref linkend="ce-partitioning">.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
@ -1040,19 +1047,39 @@ CREATE TABLE order_items (
<sect1 id="ddl-inherit">
<title>Inheritance</title>
<remark>This section needs to be rethought. Some of the
information should go into the following chapters.</remark>
<indexterm>
<primary>not-null constraint</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>constraint</primary>
<secondary>NOT NULL</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Let's create two tables. The capitals table contains
state capitals which are also cities. Naturally, the
capitals table should inherit from cities.
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> implements table inheritance
which can be a useful tool for database designers. The SQL:2003
standard optionally defines type inheritance which differs in many
respects from the features described here.
</para>
<para>
Let's start with an example: suppose we are trying to build a data
model for cities. Each state has many cities, but only one
capital. We want to be able to quickly retrieve the capital city
for any particular state. This can be done by creating two tables,
one for state capitals and one for cities that are not
capitals. However, what happens when we want to ask for data about
a city, regardless of whether it is a capital or not? The
inheritance feature can help to resolve this problem. We define the
<literal>capitals</literal> table so that it inherits from
<literal>cities</literal>:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE cities (
name text,
population float,
altitude int -- (in ft)
altitude int -- in feet
);
CREATE TABLE capitals (
@ -1060,24 +1087,19 @@ CREATE TABLE capitals (
) INHERITS (cities);
</programlisting>
In this case, a row of capitals <firstterm>inherits</firstterm> all
attributes (name, population, and altitude) from its parent, cities. State
capitals have an extra attribute, state, that shows their state. In
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, a table can inherit from zero or
more other tables, and a query can reference either all rows of a table or
all rows of a table plus all of its descendants.
<note>
<para>
The inheritance hierarchy is actually a directed acyclic graph.
</para>
</note>
In this case, a row of <literal>capitals</> <firstterm>inherits</>
all the columns of its parent table, <literal>cities</>. State
capitals have an extra attribute, <literal>state</>, that shows
their state.
</para>
<para>
For example, the following query finds the names of all cities,
including state capitals, that are located at an altitude
over 500ft:
In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, a table can inherit from
zero or more other tables, and a query can reference either all
rows of a table or all rows of a table plus all of its descendants.
For example, the following query finds the names of all cities,
including state capitals, that are located at an altitude over
500ft:
<programlisting>
SELECT name, altitude
@ -1097,9 +1119,8 @@ SELECT name, altitude
</para>
<para>
On the other hand, the following query finds
all the cities that are not state capitals and
are situated at an altitude over 500ft:
On the other hand, the following query finds all the cities that
are not state capitals and are situated at an altitude over 500ft:
<programlisting>
SELECT name, altitude
@ -1110,60 +1131,55 @@ SELECT name, altitude
-----------+----------
Las Vegas | 2174
Mariposa | 1953
</programlisting>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Here the <quote>ONLY</quote> before cities indicates that the query should
be run over only cities and not tables below cities in the
inheritance hierarchy. Many of the commands that we
have already discussed -- <command>SELECT</command>,
<command>UPDATE</command> and <command>DELETE</command> --
support this <quote>ONLY</quote> notation.
Here the <literal>ONLY</literal> keyword indicates that the query
should apply only to <literal>cities</literal>, and not any tables
below <literal>cities</literal> in the inheritance hierarchy. Many
of the commands that we have already discussed &mdash;
<command>SELECT</command>, <command>UPDATE</command> and
<command>DELETE</command> &mdash; support the
<literal>ONLY</literal> keyword.
</para>
<note>
<title>Inheritance and Permissions</title>
<para>
Because permissions are not inherited automatically a user attempting to access
a parent table must either have at least the same permission for the child table
or must use the <quote>ONLY</quote> notation. If creating a new inheritance
relationship in an existing system be careful that this does not create problems.
</para>
</note>
<note>
<title>Deprecated</title>
<title>Inheritance and Permissions</title>
<para>
In previous versions of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, the
default behavior was not to include child tables in queries. This was
found to be error prone and is also in violation of the SQL:2003
standard. Under the old syntax, to get the sub-tables you append
<literal>*</literal> to the table name.
For example
<programlisting>
SELECT * from cities*;
</programlisting>
You can still explicitly specify scanning child tables by appending
<literal>*</literal>, as well as explicitly specify not scanning child tables by
writing <quote>ONLY</quote>. But beginning in version 7.1, the default
behavior for an undecorated table name is to scan its child tables
too, whereas before the default was not to do so. To get the old
default behavior, set the configuration option
<literal>SQL_Inheritance</literal> to off, e.g.,
<programlisting>
SET SQL_Inheritance TO OFF;
</programlisting>
or add a line in your <filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
Because permissions are not inherited automatically, a user
attempting to access a parent table must either have at least the
same permission for the child table or must use the
<quote>ONLY</quote> notation. If creating a new inheritance
relationship in an existing system be careful that this does not
create problems.
</para>
</note>
<para>
In some cases you may wish to know which table a particular row
originated from. There is a system column called
<structfield>tableoid</structfield> in each table which can tell you the
originating table:
Inheritance does not automatically propogate data from
<command>INSERT</command> or <command>COPY</command> commands to
other tables in the inheritance hierarchy. In our example, the
following <command>INSERT</command> statement will fail:
<programlisting>
INSERT INTO cities
(name, population, altitude, state)
VALUES ('New York', NULL, NULL, 'NY');
</programlisting>
We might hope that the data would be somehow routed to the
<literal>capitals</literal> table, though this does not happen. If
the child has no locally defined columns, then it is possible to
route data from the parent to the child using a rule, see <xref
linkend="rules-update">. This is not possible with the above
<command>INSERT</> statement because the <literal>state</> column
does not exist on both parent and child tables.
</para>
<para>
In some cases you may wish to know which table a particular row
originated from. There is a system column called
<structfield>tableoid</structfield> in each table which can tell you the
originating table:
<programlisting>
SELECT c.tableoid, c.name, c.altitude
@ -1200,21 +1216,64 @@ WHERE c.altitude &gt; 500 and c.tableoid = p.oid;
cities | Mariposa | 1953
capitals | Madison | 845
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
A table can inherit from more than one parent table, in which case it has
the union of the columns defined by the parent tables (plus any columns
declared specifically for the child table).
As shown above, a child table may locally define columns as well as
inheriting them from their parents. However, a locally defined
column cannot override the datatype of an inherited column of the
same name. A table can inherit from a table that has itself
inherited from other tables. A table can also inherit from more
than one parent table, in which case it inherits the union of the
columns defined by the parent tables. Inherited columns with
duplicate names and datatypes will be merged so that only a single
column is stored.
</para>
<para>
A serious limitation of the inheritance feature is that indexes (including
unique constraints) and foreign key constraints only apply to single
tables, not to their inheritance children. This is true on both the
referencing and referenced sides of a foreign key constraint. Thus,
in the terms of the above example:
Table inheritance can currently only be defined using the <xref
linkend="sql-createtable" endterm="sql-createtable-title">
statement. The related statement <literal>CREATE TABLE ... AS
SELECT</literal> does not allow inheritance to be specified. There
is no way to add an inheritance link to make an existing table into
a child table. Similarly, there is no way to remove an inheritance
link from a child table once it has been defined, other than using
<literal>DROP TABLE</literal>. A parent table cannot be dropped
while any of its children remain. If you wish to remove a table and
all of its descendants, then you can do so using the
<literal>CASCADE</literal> option of the <xref
linkend="sql-droptable" endterm="sql-droptable-title"> statement.
</para>
<para>
Check constraints can be defined on tables within an inheritance
hierarchy. All check constraints on a parent table are
automatically inherited by all of their children. It is currently
possible to inherit mutually exclusive check constraints, but that
definition quickly shows itself since all attempted row inserts
will be rejected.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="sql-altertable" endterm="sql-altertable-title"> will
propogate any changes in data definition on columns or check
constraints down the inheritance hierarchy. Again, dropping
columns or constraints on parent tables is only possible when using
the <literal>CASCADE</literal> option. <command>ALTER
TABLE</command> follows the same rules for duplicate column merging
and rejection that apply during <command>CREATE TABLE</command>.
</para>
<para>
Both parent and child tables can have primary and foreign keys, so
that they can take part normally on both the referencing and
referenced sides of a foreign key constraint. Indexes may be
defined on any of these columns whether or not they are inherited.
However, a serious current limitation of the inheritance feature is
that indexes (including unique constraints) and foreign key
constraints only apply to single tables and do not also index their
inheritance children. This is true on both sides of a foreign key
constraint. Thus, in the terms of the above example:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
@ -1236,9 +1295,11 @@ WHERE c.altitude &gt; 500 and c.tableoid = p.oid;
Similarly, if we were to specify that
<structname>cities</>.<structfield>name</> <literal>REFERENCES</> some
other table, this constraint would not automatically propagate to
<structname>capitals</>. In this case you could work around it by
manually adding the same <literal>REFERENCES</> constraint to
<structname>capitals</>.
<structname>capitals</>. However, it is possible to set up a
foreign key such as <structname>capitals</>.<structfield>name</>
<literal>REFERENCES</> <structname>states</>.<structfield>name</>.
So it is possible to workaround this restriction by manually adding
foreign keys to each child table.
</para>
</listitem>
@ -1254,7 +1315,556 @@ WHERE c.altitude &gt; 500 and c.tableoid = p.oid;
These deficiencies will probably be fixed in some future release,
but in the meantime considerable care is needed in deciding whether
inheritance is useful for your problem.
</para>
<note>
<title>Deprecated</title>
<para>
In previous versions of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, the
default behavior was not to include child tables in queries. This was
found to be error prone and is also in violation of the SQL:2003
standard. Under the old syntax, to get the sub-tables you append
<literal>*</literal> to the table name. For example:
<programlisting>
SELECT * from cities*;
</programlisting>
You can still explicitly specify scanning child tables by
appending <literal>*</literal>, as well as explicitly specify not
scanning child tables by writing <quote>ONLY</quote>. But
beginning in version 7.1, the default behavior for an undecorated
table name is to scan its child tables too, whereas before the
default was not to do so. To get the old default behavior,
disable the <xref linkend="guc-sql-inheritance"> configuration
option.
</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ce-partitioning">
<title>Constraint Exclusion and Partitioning</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>partitioning</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>constraint exclusion</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> supports basic table
partitioning. This section describes why and how you can implement
this as part of your database design.
</para>
<sect2 id="ce-partitioning-overview">
<title>Overview</title>
<para>
Currently, partitioning is implemented in conjunction with table
inheritance only, though using fully SQL:2003 compliant syntax.
Table inheritance allows tables to be split into partitions, and
constraint exclusion allows partitions to be selectively combined
as needed to satisfy a particular <command>SELECT</command>
statement. You should be familiar with inheritance (see <xref
linkend="ddl-inherit">) before attempting to implement
partitioning.
</para>
<para>
Partitioning can provide several benefits:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Query performance can be improved dramatically for certain kinds
of queries without the need to maintain costly indexes.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Insert performance can be improved by breaking down a large
index into multiple pieces. When an index no longer fits easily
in memory, both read and write operations on the index take
progressively more disk accesses.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Bulk deletes may be avoided altogether by simply removing one of the
partitions, if that requirement is planned into the partitioning design.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Seldom-used data can be migrated to cheaper and slower storage media.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
The benefits will normally be worthwhile only when a data table would
otherwise be very large. That is for you to judge, though would not
usually be lower than the size of physical RAM on the database server.
</para>
<para>
In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> &version;, the following
partitioning types are supported:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
"Range Partitioning" where the table is partitioned along a
"range" defined by a single column or set of columns, with no
overlap between partitions. Examples might be a date range or a
range of identifiers for particular business objects.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
"List Partitioning" where the table is partitioned by
explicitly listing which values relate to each partition.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
Hash partitioning is not currently supported.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="ce-partitioning-implementation">
<title>Implementing Partitioning</title>
<para>
Partitioning a table is a straightforward process. There
are a wide range of options for you to consider, so judging exactly
when and how to implement partitioning is a more complex topic. We
will address that complexity primarily through the examples in this
section.
</para>
<para>
To use partitioning, do the following:
<orderedlist spacing=compact>
<listitem>
<para>
Create the <quote>master</quote> table, from which all of the
partitions will inherit.
</para>
<para>
This table will contain no data. Do not define any
constraints or keys on this table, unless you intend them to
be applied equally to all partitions.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Create several <quote>child</quote> tables that inherit from
the master table.
</para>
<para>
We will refer to the child tables as partitions, though they
are in every way just normal <productname>PostgreSQL</>
tables.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Add table constraints to define the allowed values in each partition.
</para>
<para>
Only clauses of the form [COLUMN] [OPERATOR] [CONSTANT(s)] will be used
for constraint exclusion. Simple examples would be:
<programlisting>
CHECK ( x = 1 )
CHECK ( county IN ('Oxfordshire','Buckinghamshire','Warwickshire'))
CHECK ( outletID BETWEEN 1 AND 99 )
</programlisting>
These can be linked together with boolean operators AND and OR to
form complex constraints. Note that there is no difference in syntax
between Range and List Partitioning mechanisms; those terms are
descriptive only. Ensure that the set of values in each child table
do not overlap.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Add any other indexes you want to the partitions, bearing in
mind that it is always more efficient to add indexes after
data has been bulk loaded.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Optionally, define a rule or trigger to redirect modifications
of the master table to the appropriate partition.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>
For example, suppose we are constructing a database for a large
ice cream company. The company measures peak temperatures every
day as well as ice cream sales in each region. They have two
tables:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE cities (
id int not null,
name text not null,
altitude int -- in feet
);
CREATE TABLE measurement (
city_id int not null,
logdate date not null,
peaktemp int,
unitsales int
);
</programlisting>
To reduce the amount of old data that needs to be stored, we
decide to only keep the most recent 3 years worth of data. At the
beginning of each month we remove the oldest month's data.
</para>
<para>
Most queries just access the last week, month or quarter's data,
since we need to keep track of sales. As a result we have a large table,
yet only the most frequent 10% is accessed. Most of these queries
are online reports for various levels of management. These queries access
much of the table, so it is difficult to build enough indexes and at
the same time allow us to keep loading all of the data fast enough.
Yet, the reports are online so we need to respond quickly.
</para>
<para>
In this situation we can use partitioning to help us meet all of our
different requirements for the measurements table. Following the
steps outlined above, partitioning can be enabled as follows:
</para>
<para>
<orderedlist spacing=compact>
<listitem>
<para>
The measurement table is our master table.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Next we create one partition for each month using inheritance:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy04mm02 ( ) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy04mm03 ( ) INHERITS (measurement);
...
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy05mm11 ( ) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy05mm12 ( ) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy06mm01 ( ) INHERITS (measurement);
</programlisting>
Each of the partitions are complete tables in their own right,
but they inherit their definition from the measurement table.
</para>
<para>
This solves one of our problems: deleting old data. Each
month, all we need to do is perform a <command>DROP
TABLE</command> on the oldest table and create a new table to
insert into.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
We now add non-overlapping table constraints, so that our
table creation script becomes:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy04mm02 (
CHECK ( logdate >= DATE '2004-02-01' AND logdate < DATE '2004-03-01' )
) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy04mm03 (
CHECK ( logdate >= DATE '2004-03-01' AND logdate < DATE '2004-04-01' )
) INHERITS (measurement);
...
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy05mm11 (
CHECK ( logdate >= DATE '2005-11-01' AND logdate < DATE '2005-12-01' )
) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy05mm12 (
CHECK ( logdate >= DATE '2005-12-01' AND logdate < DATE '2006-01-01' )
) INHERITS (measurement);
CREATE TABLE measurement_yy06mm01 (
CHECK ( logdate >= DATE '2006-01-01' AND logdate < DATE '2006-02-01' )
) INHERITS (measurement);
</programlisting>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
We choose not to add further indexes at this time.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Data will be added each day to the latest partition. This
allows us to set up a very simple rule to insert data. We must
redefine this each month so that it always points to the
current partition.
<programlisting>
CREATE OR REPLACE RULE measurement_current_partition AS
ON INSERT
TO measurement
DO INSTEAD
INSERT INTO measurement_yy06mm01 VALUES ( NEW.city_id,
NEW.logdate,
NEW.peaktemp,
NEW.unitsales );
</programlisting>
We might want to insert data and have the server automatically
locate the partition into which the row should be added. We
could do this with a more complex set of rules as shown below.
<programlisting>
CREATE RULE measurement_insert_yy04mm02 AS
ON INSERT
TO measurement WHERE
( logdate >= DATE '2004-02-01' AND logdate < DATE '2004-03-01' )
DO INSTEAD
INSERT INTO measurement_yy04mm02 VALUES ( NEW.city_id,
NEW.logdate,
NEW.peaktemp,
NEW.unitsales );
...
CREATE RULE measurement_insert_yy05mm12 AS
ON INSERT
TO measurement WHERE
( logdate >= DATE '2005-12-01' AND logdate < DATE '2006-01-01' )
DO INSTEAD
INSERT INTO measurement_yy05mm12 VALUES ( NEW.city_id,
NEW.logdate,
NEW.peaktemp,
NEW.unitsales );
CREATE RULE measurement_insert_yy06mm01 AS
ON INSERT
TO measurement WHERE
( logdate >= DATE '2006-01-01' AND logdate < DATE '2006-02-01' )
DO INSTEAD
INSERT INTO measurement_yy06mm01 VALUES ( NEW.city_id,
NEW.logdate,
NEW.peaktemp,
NEW.unitsales );
</programlisting>
Note that the <literal>WHERE</literal> clause in each rule
exactly matches those used for the <literal>CHECK</literal>
constraints on each partition.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>
As we can see, a complex partitioning scheme could require a
substantial amount of DDL. In the above example we would be
creating a new partition each month, so it may be wise to write a
script that generates the required DDL automatically.
</para>
<para>
The following caveats apply:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
There is currently no way to specify that all of the
<literal>CHECK</literal> constraints are mutually
exclusive. Care is required by the database designer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
There is currently no way to specify that rows may not be
inserted into the master table. A <literal>CHECK</literal>
constraint on the master table will be inherited by all child
tables, so that cannot not be used for this purpose.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
For some datatypes you must explicitly coerce the constant values
into the datatype of the column. The following constraint will
work if x is an INTEGER datatype, but not if x is BIGINT datatype.
<programlisting>
CHECK ( x = 1 )
</programlisting>
For BIGINT we must use a constraint like:
<programlisting>
CHECK ( x = 1::bigint )
</programlisting>
The issue is not restricted to BIGINT datatypes but can occur whenever
the default datatype of the constant does not match the datatype of
the column to which it is being compared.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Partitioning can also be arranged using a <literal>UNION
ALL</literal> view:
<programlisting>
CREATE VIEW measurement AS
SELECT * FROM measurement_yy04mm02
UNION ALL SELECT * FROM measurement_yy04mm03
...
UNION ALL SELECT * FROM measurement_yy05mm11
UNION ALL SELECT * FROM measurement_yy05mm12
UNION ALL SELECT * FROM measurement_yy06mm01;
</programlisting>
However, constraint exclusion is currently not supported for
partitioned tables defined in this manner.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="constraint-exclusion-queries">
<title>Constraint Exclusion in Queries</title>
<para>
Partitioning can be used to improve query performance when used in
conjunction with constraint exclusion. As an example:
<programlisting>
SET constraint_exclusion=true;
SELECT count(*) FROM measurement WHERE logdate >= DATE '2006-01-01';
</programlisting>
Without constraint exclusion, the above query would scan each of
the partitions of the measurement table. With constraint
exclusion, the planner will examine each of the constraints and
try to prove that each of the partitions needs to be involved in
the query. If the planner is able to refute that for any
partition, it excludes the partition from the query plan.
</para>
<para>
You can use the <command>EXPLAIN</> command to show the difference
between a plan with <varname>constraint_exclusion</> on and a plan
with it off.
<programlisting>
SET constraint_exclusion=false;
EXPLAIN SELECT count(*) FROM measurement WHERE logdate >= DATE '2006-01-01';
QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aggregate (cost=158.66..158.68 rows=1 width=0)
-> Append (cost=0.00..151.88 rows=2715 width=0)
-> Seq Scan on measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
-> Seq Scan on measurement_yy04mm02 measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
-> Seq Scan on measurement_yy04mm03 measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
...
-> Seq Scan on measurement_yy05mm12 measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
-> Seq Scan on measurement_yy06mm01 measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
</programlisting>
Now when we enable constraint exclusion, we get a significantly
reduced plan but the same result set:
<programlisting>
SET constraint_exclusion=true;
EXPLAIN SELECT count(*) FROM measurement WHERE logdate >= DATE '2006-01-01';
QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aggregate (cost=63.47..63.48 rows=1 width=0)
-> Append (cost=0.00..60.75 rows=1086 width=0)
-> Seq Scan on measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
-> Seq Scan on measurement_yy06mm01 measurement (cost=0.00..30.38 rows=543 width=0)
Filter: (logdate >= '2006-01-01'::date)
</programlisting>
Don't forget that you still need to run <command>ANALYZE</command>
on each partition individually. A command like this
<programlisting>
ANALYZE measurement;
</programlisting>
only affects the master table.
</para>
<para>
No indexes are required to use constraint exclusion. The
partitions should be defined with appropriate <literal>CHECK</>
constraints. These are then compared with the predicates of the
<command>SELECT</> query to determine which partitions must be
scanned.
</para>
<para>
The following caveats apply to this release:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Constraint exclusion only works when the query directly matches
a constant. A constant bound to a parameterised query will not
work in the same way since the plan is fixed and would need to
vary with each execution. Also, stable constants such as
<literal>CURRENT_DATE</literal> may not be used, since these are
constant only for during the execution of a single query. Join
conditions will not allow constraint exclusion to work either.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
UPDATEs and DELETEs against the master table do not perform
constraint exclusion.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
All constraints on all partitions of the master table are considered for
constraint exclusion, so large numbers of partitions are likely to
increase query planning time considerably.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ddl-alter">
@ -1530,7 +2140,7 @@ ALTER TABLE products RENAME TO items;
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ddl-priv">
<title>Privileges</title>
@ -1953,7 +2563,7 @@ SELECT 3 OPERATOR(pg_catalog.+) 4;
schema. To allow that, the <literal>CREATE</literal> privilege on
the schema needs to be granted. Note that by default, everyone
has <literal>CREATE</literal> and <literal>USAGE</literal> privileges on
the schema
the schema
<literal>public</literal>. This allows all users that are able to
connect to a given database to create objects in its
<literal>public</literal> schema. If you do