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Add mention of transactions and large objects. 

Still need the code updated for LO examples.
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Thomas G. Lockhart 1999-10-04 15:16:35 +00:00
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@ -1,384 +1,385 @@
<Chapter Id="jdbc">
<Title>JDBC Interface</Title>
<chapter id="jdbc">
<title>JDBC Interface</title>
<para>
<note>
<title>Author</title>
<para>
Written by <ulink url="peter@retep.org.uk">Peter T. Mount</ulink>, the
author of the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver.
</para>
</note>
</para>
<para>
<note>
<title>Author</title>
<para>
Written by <ulink url="peter@retep.org.uk">Peter T. Mount</ulink>, the
author of the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver.
</para>
</note>
</para>
<para>
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> is a core <acronym>API</acronym> of Java 1.1 and later.
It provides a standard set of
interfaces to <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant databases.
</para>
<para>
<application>Postgres</application> provides
a type 4 <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Driver. Type 4 indicates that the driver
is written in Pure Java, and communicates in the database's own network
protocol. Because of this, the driver is platform independent. Once compiled,
the driver can be used on any platform.
</para>
<para>
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> is a core <acronym>API</acronym> of Java 1.1 and later.
It provides a standard set of
interfaces to <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant databases.
</para>
<sect1>
<title>Building the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Interface</title>
<para>
<application>Postgres</application> provides
a <firstterm>type 4</firstterm> <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Driver.
Type 4 indicates that the driver
is written in Pure Java, and communicates in the database's own network
protocol. Because of this, the driver is platform independent. Once compiled,
the driver can be used on any platform.
</para>
<sect2>
<title>Compiling the Driver</title>
<sect1>
<title>Building the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Interface</title>
<para>
The driver's source is located in the <filename>src/interfaces/jdbc</filename>
directory of the
source tree. To compile simply change directory to that directory, and type:
<sect2>
<title>Compiling the Driver</title>
<programlisting>
<para>
The driver's source is located in the <filename>src/interfaces/jdbc</filename>
directory of the
source tree. To compile simply change directory to that directory, and type:
<programlisting>
% make
</programlisting>
</para>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Upon completion, you will find the archive <filename>postgresql.jar</filename>
in the current
directory. This is the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver.
<para>
Upon completion, you will find the archive <filename>postgresql.jar</filename>
in the current
directory. This is the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver.
<note>
<para>
You must use <application>make</application>,
not <application>javac</application>,
as the driver uses some dynamic
loading techniques for performance reasons,
and <application>javac</application> cannot cope.
The <filename>Makefile</filename> will generate the jar archive.
</para>
</note>
</para>
</sect2>
<note>
<para>
You must use <application>make</application>,
not <application>javac</application>,
as the driver uses some dynamic
loading techniques for performance reasons,
and <application>javac</application> cannot cope.
The <filename>Makefile</filename> will generate the jar archive.
</para>
</note>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Installing the Driver</title>
<sect2>
<title>Installing the Driver</title>
<para>
To use the driver, the jar archive postgresql.jar needs to be included in
the CLASSPATH.
</para>
<para>
Example:
</para>
<para>
I have an application that uses the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver to access a large database
containing astronomical objects. I have the application and the jdbc driver
installed in the /usr/local/lib directory, and the java jdk installed in /usr/local/jdk1.1.6.
</para>
<para>
To use the driver, the jar archive postgresql.jar needs to be included in
the <envar>CLASSPATH</envar>.
</para>
<para>
To run the application, I would use:
</para>
<para>
export CLASSPATH = \
/usr/local/lib/finder.jar:/usr/local/lib/postgresql.jar:.
<sect3>
<title>Example</title>
<para>
I have an application that uses the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver to access a large database
containing astronomical objects. I have the application and the jdbc driver
installed in the /usr/local/lib directory, and the java jdk installed in /usr/local/jdk1.1.6.
</para>
<para>
To run the application, I would use:
<programlisting>
export CLASSPATH = /usr/local/lib/finder.jar:/usr/local/lib/postgresql.jar:.
java uk.org.retep.finder.Main
</para>
<para>
Loading the driver is covered later on in this chapter.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</programlisting>
</para>
<sect1>
<title>Preparing the Database for <acronym>JDBC</acronym></title>
<para>
Loading the driver is covered later on in this chapter.
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<para>
Because Java can only use TCP/IP connections, the <application>Postgres</application> postmaster
must be running with the -i flag.
</para>
<para>
Also, the <filename>pg_hba.conf</filename> file must be configured. It's located in the PGDATA
directory. In a default installation, this file permits access only by UNIX
domain sockets. For the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver to connect to the same localhost, you need
to add something like:
</para>
<para>
<sect1>
<title>Preparing the Database for <acronym>JDBC</acronym></title>
<para>
Because Java can only use TCP/IP connections, the <application>Postgres</application> postmaster
must be running with the -i flag.
</para>
<para>
Also, the <filename>pg_hba.conf</filename> file must be configured. It's located in the PGDATA
directory. In a default installation, this file permits access only by Unix
domain sockets. For the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> driver to connect to the same localhost, you need
to add something like:
<programlisting>
host all 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 password
</para>
<para>
Here access to all databases are possible from the local machine
with <acronym>JDBC</acronym>.
</para>
</programlisting>
<para>
The <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Driver supports trust, ident,
password and crypt authentication methods.
</para>
</sect1>
Here access to all databases are possible from the local machine
with <acronym>JDBC</acronym>.
</para>
<sect1>
<title>Using the Driver</title>
<para>
The <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Driver supports trust, ident,
password and crypt authentication methods.
</para>
</sect1>
<para>
This section is not intended as a complete guide to
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> programming, but
should help to get you started. For more information refer to the standard
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> <acronym>API</acronym> documentation.
</para>
<para>
Also, take a look at the examples included with the source. The basic
example is used here.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Using the Driver</title>
<sect1>
<title>Importing <acronym>JDBC</acronym></title>
<para>
This section is not intended as a complete guide to
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> programming, but
should help to get you started. For more information refer to the standard
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> <acronym>API</acronym> documentation.
Also, take a look at the examples included with the source. The basic
example is used here.
</para>
</sect1>
<para>
Any source that uses <acronym>JDBC</acronym>
needs to import the java.sql package, using:
<sect1>
<title>Importing <acronym>JDBC</acronym></title>
<programlisting>
<para>
Any source that uses <acronym>JDBC</acronym>
needs to import the java.sql package, using:
<programlisting>
import java.sql.*;
</programlisting>
</programlisting>
<important>
<para>
Do not import the postgresql package. If you do, your source will not
compile, as javac will get confused.
</para>
</important>
</para>
</sect1>
<important>
<para>
Do not import the postgresql package. If you do, your source will not
compile, as javac will get confused.
</para>
</important>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Loading the Driver</title>
<sect1>
<title>Loading the Driver</title>
<para>
Before you can connect to a database, you need to load the driver. There
are two methods available, and it depends on your code to the best one to use.
</para>
<para>
Before you can connect to a database, you need to load the driver. There
are two methods available, and it depends on your code to the best one to use.
</para>
<para>
In the first method, your code implicitly loads the driver using the
Class.forName() method. For <application>Postgres</application>, you would use:
<para>
In the first method, your code implicitly loads the driver using the
<function>Class.forName()</function> method.
For <application>Postgres</application>, you would use:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
Class.forName("postgresql.Driver");
</programlisting>
</programlisting>
This will load the driver, and while loading, the driver will automatically
register itself with <acronym>JDBC</acronym>.
</para>
This will load the driver, and while loading, the driver will automatically
register itself with <acronym>JDBC</acronym>.
</para>
<para>
Note: The <function>forName()</function> method
can throw a ClassNotFoundException, so you will
need to catch it if the driver is not available.
</para>
<para>
Note: The <function>forName()</function> method
can throw a <literal>ClassNotFoundException</literal>, so you will
need to catch it if the driver is not available.
</para>
<para>
This is the most common method to use, but restricts your code to use just
<application>Postgres</application>.
If your code may access another database in the future, and you
don't use our extensions, then the second method is advisable.
</para>
<para>
This is the most common method to use, but restricts your code to use just
<application>Postgres</application>.
If your code may access another database in the future, and you
don't use our extensions, then the second method is advisable.
</para>
<para>
The second method passes the driver as a parameter to the JVM as it starts,
using the -D argument.
</para>
<para>
Example:
<para>
The second method passes the driver as a parameter to the JVM as it starts,
using the -D argument. Example:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
% java -Djdbc.drivers=postgresql.Driver example.ImageViewer
</programlisting>
</para>
</programlisting>
<para>
In this example, the JVM will attempt to load the driver as part of it's
initialisation. Once done, the ImageViewer is started.
In this example, the JVM will attempt to load the driver as part of it's
initialisation. Once done, the ImageViewer is started.
</para>
</para>
<para>
Now, this method is the better one to use because it allows your code to
be used with other databases, without recompiling the code. The only thing
that would also change is the URL, which is covered next.
</para>
<para>
Now, this method is the better one to use because it allows your code to
be used with other databases, without recompiling the code. The only thing
that would also change is the URL, which is covered next.
</para>
<para>
One last thing. When your code then tries to open a Connection, and you get
a <literal>No driver available</literal> SQLException being thrown,
this is probably
caused by the driver not being in the classpath, or the value in the parameter
not being correct.
</para>
</sect1>
<para>
One last thing. When your code then tries to open a Connection, and you get
a <literal>No driver available</literal> SQLException being thrown,
this is probably
caused by the driver not being in the classpath, or the value in the parameter
not being correct.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Connecting to the Database</title>
<sect1>
<title>Connecting to the Database</title>
<para>
With <acronym>JDBC</acronym>, a database is represented by a URL
(Uniform Resource Locator).
With <application>Postgres</application>, this takes one of the following
forms:
<para>
With <acronym>JDBC</acronym>, a database is represented by a URL
(Uniform Resource Locator).
With <application>Postgres</application>, this takes one of the following
forms:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql:<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql:<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql://<replaceable class="parameter">host</replaceable>/<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql://<replaceable class="parameter">>hos</replaceable>>/<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql://<replaceable class="parameter">host</replaceable>:<replaceable class="parameter">port</replaceable>/<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
jdbc:postgresql://<replaceable class="parameter">>hos</replaceable>><replaceable class="parameter">">po</replaceable>e>/<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</itemizedlist>
where:
where:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">host</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The hostname of the server. Defaults to "localhost".
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">host</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The hostname of the server. Defaults to "localhost".
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">port</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The port number the server is listening on. Defaults to the Postgres
standard port number (5432).
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">port</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The port number the server is listening on. Defaults to the Postgres
standard port number (5432).
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The database name.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable class="parameter">database</replaceable>
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The database name.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<para>
To connect, you need to get a Connection instance from
<acronym>JDBC</acronym>. To do this,
you would use the DriverManager.getConnection() method:
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>
To connect, you need to get a Connection instance from
<acronym>JDBC</acronym>. To do this,
you would use the DriverManager.getConnection() method:
</para>
<para>
<programlisting>
Connection db = DriverManager.getConnection(url,user,pwd);
</para>
</sect1>
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Issuing a Query and Processing the Result</title>
<sect1>
<title>Issuing a Query and Processing the Result</title>
<para>
Any time you want to issue SQL statements to the database, you require a
Statement instance. Once you have a Statement, you can use the executeQuery()
method to issue a query. This will return a ResultSet instance, which contains
the entire result.
</para>
<para>
Any time you want to issue SQL statements to the database, you require a
Statement instance. Once you have a Statement, you can use the executeQuery()
method to issue a query. This will return a ResultSet instance, which contains
the entire result.
</para>
<sect2>
<title>Using the Statement Interface</title>
<sect2>
<title>Using the Statement Interface</title>
<para>
The following must be considered when using the Statement interface:
<para>
The following must be considered when using the Statement interface:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
You can use a Statement instance as many times as you want. You could
create one as soon as you open the connection, and use it for the connections
lifetime. You have to remember that only one ResultSet can exist per Statement.
</para>
</listitem>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
You can use a Statement instance as many times as you want. You could
create one as soon as you open the connection, and use it for the connections
lifetime. You have to remember that only one ResultSet can exist per Statement.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If you need to perform a query while processing a ResultSet, you can
simply create and use another Statement.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If you are using Threads, and several are using the database, you must
use a separate Statement for each thread. Refer to the sections covering
Threads and Servlets later in this document if you are thinking of using them,
as it covers some important points.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<listitem>
<para>
If you need to perform a query while processing a ResultSet, you can
simply create and use another Statement.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If you are using Threads, and several are using the database, you must
use a separate Statement for each thread. Refer to the sections covering
Threads and Servlets later in this document if you are thinking of using them,
as it covers some important points.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Using the ResultSet Interface</title>
<sect2>
<title>Using the ResultSet Interface</title>
<para>
The following must be considered when using the ResultSet interface:
<para>
The following must be considered when using the ResultSet interface:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Before reading any values, you must call <function>next()</function>. This returns true if
there is a result, but more importantly, it prepares the row for processing.
</para>
</listitem>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Before reading any values, you must call <function>next()</function>. This returns true if
there is a result, but more importantly, it prepares the row for processing.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Under the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> spec, you should access a field only once. It's safest
to stick to this rule, although at the current time, the <application>Postgres</application> driver
will allow you to access a field as many times as you want.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Under the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> spec, you should access a
field only once. It's safest to stick to this rule, although
at the current time, the <application>Postgres</application> driver
will allow you to access a field as many times as you want.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
You must close a ResultSet by calling <function>close()</function> once you have finished with it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
You must close a ResultSet by calling
<function>close()</function> once you have finished with it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Once you request another query with the Statement used to create a
ResultSet, the currently open instance is closed.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<listitem>
<para>
Once you request another query with the Statement used to create a
ResultSet, the currently open instance is closed.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
An example is as follows:
<para>
An example is as follows:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
Statement st = db.createStatement();
ResultSet rs = st.executeQuery("select * from mytable");
while(rs.next()) {
@ -387,74 +388,97 @@ while(rs.next()) {
}
rs.close();
st.close();
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Performing Updates</title>
<sect1>
<title>Performing Updates</title>
<para>
To perform an update (or any other SQL statement that does not return a
result), you simply use the executeUpdate() method:
<para>
To perform an update (or any other SQL statement that does not return a
result), you simply use the <function>executeUpdate()</function> method:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
st.executeUpdate("create table basic (a int2, b int2)");
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Closing the Connection</title>
<sect1>
<title>Closing the Connection</title>
<para>
To close the database connection, simply call the close() method to the Connection:
<para>
To close the database connection, simply call the close() method to the Connection:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
db.close();
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Using Large Objects</title>
<sect1>
<title>Using Large Objects</title>
<para>
In <application>Postgres</application>,
large objects (also known as <firstterm>blobs</firstterm>) are used to hold data in
the database that cannot be stored in a normal SQL table. They are stored as a
Table/Index pair, and are refered to from your own tables, by an OID value.
</para>
<para>
In <application>Postgres</application>,
large objects (also known as <firstterm>blobs</firstterm>) are used to hold data in
the database that cannot be stored in a normal SQL table. They are stored as a
Table/Index pair, and are referred to from your own tables by an OID value.
</para>
<para>
Now, there are you methods of using Large Objects. The first is the
standard <acronym>JDBC</acronym> way, and is documented here. The other, uses our own extension
to the api, which presents the libpq large object <acronym>API</acronym> to Java, providing even
better access to large objects than the standard. Internally, the driver uses
the extension to provide large object support.
</para>
<para>
In <acronym>JDBC</acronym>, the standard way to access them is using the getBinaryStream()
method in ResultSet, and setBinaryStream() method in PreparedStatement. These
methods make the large object appear as a Java stream, allowing you to use the
java.io package, and others, to manipulate the object.
</para>
<para>
<important>
<para>
For <productname>Postgres</productname>, you must access large
objects within an SQL transaction. Although this has always been
true in principle, it was not strictly enforced until the
release of v6.5. You would open a transaction by using the
<function>setAutoCommit()</function> method with an input
parameter of <literal>false</literal>:
<para>
For example, suppose
you have a table containing the file name of an image, and a large object
containing that image:
<programlisting>
Connection mycon;
...
mycon.setAutoCommit(false);
... now use Large Objects
</programlisting>
</para>
</important>
</para>
<programlisting>
<para>
Now, there are two methods of using Large Objects. The first is the
standard <acronym>JDBC</acronym> way, and is documented here. The
other, uses our own extension
to the api, which presents the libpq large object
<acronym>API</acronym> to Java, providing even
better access to large objects than the standard. Internally, the driver uses
the extension to provide large object support.
</para>
<para>
In <acronym>JDBC</acronym>, the standard way to access them is using the getBinaryStream()
method in ResultSet, and setBinaryStream() method in PreparedStatement. These
methods make the large object appear as a Java stream, allowing you to use the
java.io package, and others, to manipulate the object.
</para>
<para>
For example, suppose
you have a table containing the file name of an image, and a large object
containing that image:
<programlisting>
create table images (imgname name,imgoid oid);
</programlisting>
</para>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
To insert an image, you would use:
<para>
To insert an image, you would use:
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
File file = new File("myimage.gif");
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream(file);
PreparedStatement ps = conn.prepareStatement("insert into images values (?,?)");
@ -463,20 +487,20 @@ ps.setBinaryStream(2,fis,file.length());
ps.executeUpdate();
ps.close();
fis.close();
</programlisting>
</para>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Now in this example, setBinaryStream transfers a set number of bytes from a
stream into a large object, and stores the OID into the field holding a
reference to it.
</para>
<para>
Now in this example, setBinaryStream transfers a set number of bytes from a
stream into a large object, and stores the OID into the field holding a
reference to it.
</para>
<para>
Retrieving an image is even easier (I'm using PreparedStatement here, but
Statement can equally be used):
<para>
Retrieving an image is even easier (I'm using PreparedStatement here, but
Statement can equally be used):
<programlisting>
<programlisting>
PreparedStatement ps = con.prepareStatement("select oid from images where name=?");
ps.setString(1,"myimage.gif");
ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery();
@ -489,31 +513,33 @@ if(rs!=null) {
rs.close();
}
ps.close();
</programlisting>
</para>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Now here you can see where the Large Object is retrieved as an InputStream.
You'll also notice that we close the stream before processing the next row in
the result. This is part of the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Specification, which states that any
InputStream returned is closed when ResultSet.next() or ResultSet.close() is called.
</para>
</sect1>
<para>
Now here you can see where the Large Object is retrieved as an InputStream.
You'll also notice that we close the stream before processing the next row in
the result. This is part of the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> Specification, which states that any
InputStream returned is closed when ResultSet.next() or ResultSet.close() is called.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title><application>Postgres</application> Extensions to the <acronym>JDBC</acronym> <acronym>API</acronym></title>
<sect1>
<title><application>Postgres</application> Extensions to the
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> <acronym>API</acronym></title>
<para>
<application>Postgres</application> is an extensible database system.
You can add your own functions
to the backend, which can then be called from queries, or even add your own
data types.
</para>
<para>
Now, as these are facilities unique to us, we support them from Java, with
a set of extension <acronym>API</acronym>'s. Some features within
the core of the standard driver
actually use these extensions to implement Large Objects, etc.
<para>
<application>Postgres</application> is an extensible database system.
You can add your own functions
to the backend, which can then be called from queries, or even add your own
data types.
</para>
<para>
Now, as these are facilities unique to us, we support them from Java, with
a set of extension <acronym>API</acronym>'s. Some features within
the core of the standard driver
actually use these extensions to implement Large Objects, etc.
<!--
************************************************************
@ -2241,7 +2267,8 @@ java.lang.Object
public class PGobject extends Object implements Serializable,
Cloneable
This class is used to describe data types that are unknown by <acronym>JDBC</acronym>
This class is used to describe data types that are unknown by
<acronym>JDBC</acronym>
Standard.
A call to postgresql.Connection permits a class that extends this
class to be associated with a named type. This is how the
@ -2550,7 +2577,8 @@ while another one is receiving results, and this would be a bad thing
for the database engine.
PostgreSQL 6.4, brings thread safety to the entire driver. Standard
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> was thread safe in 6.3.x, but the Fastpath <acronym>API</acronym> wasn't.
<acronym>JDBC</acronym> was thread safe in 6.3.x, but the Fastpath
<acronym>API</acronym> wasn't.
So, if your application uses multiple threads (which most decent ones
would), then you don't have to worry about complex schemes to ensure
@ -2614,3 +2642,20 @@ document, and also includes precompiled drivers for v6.4, and earlier.
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
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