foreign data wrapper handler for All operations on a foreign table are handled through its foreign data wrapper, which consists of a set of functions that the core server calls. The foreign data wrapper is responsible for fetching data from the remote data source and returning it to the PostgreSQL executor. If updating foreign tables is to be supported, the wrapper must handle that, too. This chapter outlines how to write a new foreign data wrapper. The foreign data wrappers included in the standard distribution are good references when trying to write your own. Look into the contrib subdirectory of the source tree. The reference page also has some useful details. The SQL standard specifies an interface for writing foreign data wrappers. However, PostgreSQL does not implement that API, because the effort to accommodate it into PostgreSQL would be large, and the standard API hasn't gained wide adoption anyway. The FDW author needs to implement a handler function, and optionally a validator function. Both functions must be written in a compiled language such as C, using the version-1 interface. For details on C language calling conventions and dynamic loading, see . The handler function simply returns a struct of function pointers to callback functions that will be called by the planner, executor, and various maintenance commands. Most of the effort in writing an FDW is in implementing these callback functions. The handler function must be registered with PostgreSQL as taking no arguments and returning the special pseudo-type fdw_handler. The callback functions are plain C functions and are not visible or callable at the SQL level. The callback functions are described in . The validator function is responsible for validating options given in CREATE and ALTER commands for its foreign data wrapper, as well as foreign servers, user mappings, and foreign tables using the wrapper. The validator function must be registered as taking two arguments, a text array containing the options to be validated, and an OID representing the type of object the options are associated with (in the form of the OID of the system catalog the object would be stored in, either ForeignDataWrapperRelationId, ForeignServerRelationId, UserMappingRelationId, or ForeignTableRelationId). If no validator function is supplied, options are not checked at object creation time or object alteration time. The FDW handler function returns a palloc'd FdwRoutine struct containing pointers to the callback functions described below. The scan-related functions are required, the rest are optional. The FdwRoutine struct type is declared in src/include/foreign/fdwapi.h, which see for additional details. void GetForeignRelSize (PlannerInfo *root, RelOptInfo *baserel, Oid foreigntableid); Obtain relation size estimates for a foreign table. This is called at the beginning of planning for a query that scans a foreign table. root is the planner's global information about the query; baserel is the planner's information about this table; and foreigntableid is the pg_class OID of the foreign table. (foreigntableid could be obtained from the planner data structures, but it's passed explicitly to save effort.) This function should update baserel->rows to be the expected number of rows returned by the table scan, after accounting for the filtering done by the restriction quals. The initial value of baserel->rows is just a constant default estimate, which should be replaced if at all possible. The function may also choose to update baserel->width if it can compute a better estimate of the average result row width. See for additional information. void GetForeignPaths (PlannerInfo *root, RelOptInfo *baserel, Oid foreigntableid); Create possible access paths for a scan on a foreign table. This is called during query planning. The parameters are the same as for GetForeignRelSize, which has already been called. This function must generate at least one access path (ForeignPath node) for a scan on the foreign table and must call add_path to add each such path to baserel->pathlist. It's recommended to use create_foreignscan_path to build the ForeignPath nodes. The function can generate multiple access paths, e.g., a path which has valid pathkeys to represent a pre-sorted result. Each access path must contain cost estimates, and can contain any FDW-private information that is needed to identify the specific scan method intended. See for additional information. ForeignScan * GetForeignPlan (PlannerInfo *root, RelOptInfo *baserel, Oid foreigntableid, ForeignPath *best_path, List *tlist, List *scan_clauses, Plan *outer_plan); Create a ForeignScan plan node from the selected foreign access path. This is called at the end of query planning. The parameters are as for GetForeignRelSize, plus the selected ForeignPath (previously produced by GetForeignPaths, GetForeignJoinPaths, or GetForeignUpperPaths), the target list to be emitted by the plan node, the restriction clauses to be enforced by the plan node, and the outer subplan of the ForeignScan, which is used for rechecks performed by RecheckForeignScan. (If the path is for a join rather than a base relation, foreigntableid is InvalidOid.) This function must create and return a ForeignScan plan node; it's recommended to use make_foreignscan to build the ForeignScan node. See for additional information. void BeginForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node, int eflags); Begin executing a foreign scan. This is called during executor startup. It should perform any initialization needed before the scan can start, but not start executing the actual scan (that should be done upon the first call to IterateForeignScan). The ForeignScanState node has already been created, but its fdw_state field is still NULL. Information about the table to scan is accessible through the ForeignScanState node (in particular, from the underlying ForeignScan plan node, which contains any FDW-private information provided by GetForeignPlan). eflags contains flag bits describing the executor's operating mode for this plan node. Note that when (eflags & EXEC_FLAG_EXPLAIN_ONLY) is true, this function should not perform any externally-visible actions; it should only do the minimum required to make the node state valid for ExplainForeignScan and EndForeignScan. TupleTableSlot * IterateForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node); Fetch one row from the foreign source, returning it in a tuple table slot (the node's ScanTupleSlot should be used for this purpose). Return NULL if no more rows are available. The tuple table slot infrastructure allows either a physical or virtual tuple to be returned; in most cases the latter choice is preferable from a performance standpoint. Note that this is called in a short-lived memory context that will be reset between invocations. Create a memory context in BeginForeignScan if you need longer-lived storage, or use the es_query_cxt of the node's EState. The rows returned must match the fdw_scan_tlist target list if one was supplied, otherwise they must match the row type of the foreign table being scanned. If you choose to optimize away fetching columns that are not needed, you should insert nulls in those column positions, or else generate a fdw_scan_tlist list with those columns omitted. Note that PostgreSQL's executor doesn't care whether the rows returned violate any constraints that were defined on the foreign table — but the planner does care, and may optimize queries incorrectly if there are rows visible in the foreign table that do not satisfy a declared constraint. If a constraint is violated when the user has declared that the constraint should hold true, it may be appropriate to raise an error (just as you would need to do in the case of a data type mismatch). void ReScanForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node); Restart the scan from the beginning. Note that any parameters the scan depends on may have changed value, so the new scan does not necessarily return exactly the same rows. void EndForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node); End the scan and release resources. It is normally not important to release palloc'd memory, but for example open files and connections to remote servers should be cleaned up. If an FDW supports performing foreign joins remotely (rather than by fetching both tables' data and doing the join locally), it should provide this callback function: void GetForeignJoinPaths (PlannerInfo *root, RelOptInfo *joinrel, RelOptInfo *outerrel, RelOptInfo *innerrel, JoinType jointype, JoinPathExtraData *extra); Create possible access paths for a join of two (or more) foreign tables that all belong to the same foreign server. This optional function is called during query planning. As with GetForeignPaths, this function should generate ForeignPath path(s) for the supplied joinrel, and call add_path to add these paths to the set of paths considered for the join. But unlike GetForeignPaths, it is not necessary that this function succeed in creating at least one path, since paths involving local joining are always possible. Note that this function will be invoked repeatedly for the same join relation, with different combinations of inner and outer relations; it is the responsibility of the FDW to minimize duplicated work. If a ForeignPath path is chosen for the join, it will represent the entire join process; paths generated for the component tables and subsidiary joins will not be used. Subsequent processing of the join path proceeds much as it does for a path scanning a single foreign table. One difference is that the scanrelid of the resulting ForeignScan plan node should be set to zero, since there is no single relation that it represents; instead, the fs_relids field of the ForeignScan node represents the set of relations that were joined. (The latter field is set up automatically by the core planner code, and need not be filled by the FDW.) Another difference is that, because the column list for a remote join cannot be found from the system catalogs, the FDW must fill fdw_scan_tlist with an appropriate list of TargetEntry nodes, representing the set of columns it will supply at run time in the tuples it returns. See for additional information. If an FDW supports performing remote post-scan/join processing, such as remote aggregation, it should provide this callback function: void GetForeignUpperPaths (PlannerInfo *root, UpperRelationKind stage, RelOptInfo *input_rel, RelOptInfo *output_rel); Create possible access paths for upper relation processing, which is the planner's term for all post-scan/join query processing, such as aggregation, window functions, sorting, and table updates. This optional function is called during query planning. Currently, it is called only if all base relation(s) involved in the query belong to the same FDW. This function should generate ForeignPath path(s) for any post-scan/join processing that the FDW knows how to perform remotely, and call add_path to add these paths to the indicated upper relation. As with GetForeignJoinPaths, it is not necessary that this function succeed in creating any paths, since paths involving local processing are always possible. The stage parameter identifies which post-scan/join step is currently being considered. output_rel is the upper relation that should receive paths representing computation of this step, and input_rel is the relation representing the input to this step. (Note that ForeignPath paths added to output_rel would typically not have any direct dependency on paths of the input_rel, since their processing is expected to be done externally. However, examining paths previously generated for the previous processing step can be useful to avoid redundant planning work.) See for additional information. If an FDW supports writable foreign tables, it should provide some or all of the following callback functions depending on the needs and capabilities of the FDW: void AddForeignUpdateTargets (Query *parsetree, RangeTblEntry *target_rte, Relation target_relation); UPDATE and DELETE operations are performed against rows previously fetched by the table-scanning functions. The FDW may need extra information, such as a row ID or the values of primary-key columns, to ensure that it can identify the exact row to update or delete. To support that, this function can add extra hidden, or junk, target columns to the list of columns that are to be retrieved from the foreign table during an UPDATE or DELETE. To do that, add TargetEntry items to parsetree->targetList, containing expressions for the extra values to be fetched. Each such entry must be marked resjunk = true, and must have a distinct resname that will identify it at execution time. Avoid using names matching ctidN, wholerow, or wholerowN, as the core system can generate junk columns of these names. This function is called in the rewriter, not the planner, so the information available is a bit different from that available to the planning routines. parsetree is the parse tree for the UPDATE or DELETE command, while target_rte and target_relation describe the target foreign table. If the AddForeignUpdateTargets pointer is set to NULL, no extra target expressions are added. (This will make it impossible to implement DELETE operations, though UPDATE may still be feasible if the FDW relies on an unchanging primary key to identify rows.) List * PlanForeignModify (PlannerInfo *root, ModifyTable *plan, Index resultRelation, int subplan_index); Perform any additional planning actions needed for an insert, update, or delete on a foreign table. This function generates the FDW-private information that will be attached to the ModifyTable plan node that performs the update action. This private information must have the form of a List, and will be delivered to BeginForeignModify during the execution stage. root is the planner's global information about the query. plan is the ModifyTable plan node, which is complete except for the fdwPrivLists field. resultRelation identifies the target foreign table by its range table index. subplan_index identifies which target of the ModifyTable plan node this is, counting from zero; use this if you want to index into plan->plans or other substructure of the plan node. See for additional information. If the PlanForeignModify pointer is set to NULL, no additional plan-time actions are taken, and the fdw_private list delivered to BeginForeignModify will be NIL. void BeginForeignModify (ModifyTableState *mtstate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo, List *fdw_private, int subplan_index, int eflags); Begin executing a foreign table modification operation. This routine is called during executor startup. It should perform any initialization needed prior to the actual table modifications. Subsequently, ExecForeignInsert, ExecForeignUpdate or ExecForeignDelete will be called for each tuple to be inserted, updated, or deleted. mtstate is the overall state of the ModifyTable plan node being executed; global data about the plan and execution state is available via this structure. rinfo is the ResultRelInfo struct describing the target foreign table. (The ri_FdwState field of ResultRelInfo is available for the FDW to store any private state it needs for this operation.) fdw_private contains the private data generated by PlanForeignModify, if any. subplan_index identifies which target of the ModifyTable plan node this is. eflags contains flag bits describing the executor's operating mode for this plan node. Note that when (eflags & EXEC_FLAG_EXPLAIN_ONLY) is true, this function should not perform any externally-visible actions; it should only do the minimum required to make the node state valid for ExplainForeignModify and EndForeignModify. If the BeginForeignModify pointer is set to NULL, no action is taken during executor startup. TupleTableSlot * ExecForeignInsert (EState *estate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo, TupleTableSlot *slot, TupleTableSlot *planSlot); Insert one tuple into the foreign table. estate is global execution state for the query. rinfo is the ResultRelInfo struct describing the target foreign table. slot contains the tuple to be inserted; it will match the row-type definition of the foreign table. planSlot contains the tuple that was generated by the ModifyTable plan node's subplan; it differs from slot in possibly containing additional junk columns. (The planSlot is typically of little interest for INSERT cases, but is provided for completeness.) The return value is either a slot containing the data that was actually inserted (this might differ from the data supplied, for example as a result of trigger actions), or NULL if no row was actually inserted (again, typically as a result of triggers). The passed-in slot can be re-used for this purpose. The data in the returned slot is used only if the INSERT query has a RETURNING clause or the foreign table has an AFTER ROW trigger. Triggers require all columns, but the FDW could choose to optimize away returning some or all columns depending on the contents of the RETURNING clause. Regardless, some slot must be returned to indicate success, or the query's reported row count will be wrong. If the ExecForeignInsert pointer is set to NULL, attempts to insert into the foreign table will fail with an error message. TupleTableSlot * ExecForeignUpdate (EState *estate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo, TupleTableSlot *slot, TupleTableSlot *planSlot); Update one tuple in the foreign table. estate is global execution state for the query. rinfo is the ResultRelInfo struct describing the target foreign table. slot contains the new data for the tuple; it will match the row-type definition of the foreign table. planSlot contains the tuple that was generated by the ModifyTable plan node's subplan; it differs from slot in possibly containing additional junk columns. In particular, any junk columns that were requested by AddForeignUpdateTargets will be available from this slot. The return value is either a slot containing the row as it was actually updated (this might differ from the data supplied, for example as a result of trigger actions), or NULL if no row was actually updated (again, typically as a result of triggers). The passed-in slot can be re-used for this purpose. The data in the returned slot is used only if the UPDATE query has a RETURNING clause or the foreign table has an AFTER ROW trigger. Triggers require all columns, but the FDW could choose to optimize away returning some or all columns depending on the contents of the RETURNING clause. Regardless, some slot must be returned to indicate success, or the query's reported row count will be wrong. If the ExecForeignUpdate pointer is set to NULL, attempts to update the foreign table will fail with an error message. TupleTableSlot * ExecForeignDelete (EState *estate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo, TupleTableSlot *slot, TupleTableSlot *planSlot); Delete one tuple from the foreign table. estate is global execution state for the query. rinfo is the ResultRelInfo struct describing the target foreign table. slot contains nothing useful upon call, but can be used to hold the returned tuple. planSlot contains the tuple that was generated by the ModifyTable plan node's subplan; in particular, it will carry any junk columns that were requested by AddForeignUpdateTargets. The junk column(s) must be used to identify the tuple to be deleted. The return value is either a slot containing the row that was deleted, or NULL if no row was deleted (typically as a result of triggers). The passed-in slot can be used to hold the tuple to be returned. The data in the returned slot is used only if the DELETE query has a RETURNING clause or the foreign table has an AFTER ROW trigger. Triggers require all columns, but the FDW could choose to optimize away returning some or all columns depending on the contents of the RETURNING clause. Regardless, some slot must be returned to indicate success, or the query's reported row count will be wrong. If the ExecForeignDelete pointer is set to NULL, attempts to delete from the foreign table will fail with an error message. void EndForeignModify (EState *estate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo); End the table update and release resources. It is normally not important to release palloc'd memory, but for example open files and connections to remote servers should be cleaned up. If the EndForeignModify pointer is set to NULL, no action is taken during executor shutdown. int IsForeignRelUpdatable (Relation rel); Report which update operations the specified foreign table supports. The return value should be a bit mask of rule event numbers indicating which operations are supported by the foreign table, using the CmdType enumeration; that is, (1 << CMD_UPDATE) = 4 for UPDATE, (1 << CMD_INSERT) = 8 for INSERT, and (1 << CMD_DELETE) = 16 for DELETE. If the IsForeignRelUpdatable pointer is set to NULL, foreign tables are assumed to be insertable, updatable, or deletable if the FDW provides ExecForeignInsert, ExecForeignUpdate, or ExecForeignDelete respectively. This function is only needed if the FDW supports some tables that are updatable and some that are not. (Even then, it's permissible to throw an error in the execution routine instead of checking in this function. However, this function is used to determine updatability for display in the information_schema views.) Some inserts, updates, and deletes to foreign tables can be optimized by implementing an alternative set of interfaces. The ordinary interfaces for inserts, updates, and deletes fetch rows from the remote server and then modify those rows one at a time. In some cases, this row-by-row approach is necessary, but it can be inefficient. If it is possible for the foreign server to determine which rows should be modified without actually retrieving them, and if there are no local triggers which would affect the operation, then it is possible to arrange things so that the entire operation is performed on the remote server. The interfaces described below make this possible. bool PlanDirectModify (PlannerInfo *root, ModifyTable *plan, Index resultRelation, int subplan_index); Decide whether it is safe to execute a direct modification on the remote server. If so, return true after performing planning actions needed for that. Otherwise, return false. This optional function is called during query planning. If this function succeeds, BeginDirectModify, IterateDirectModify and EndDirectModify will be called at the execution stage, instead. Otherwise, the table modification will be executed using the table-updating functions described above. The parameters are the same as for PlanForeignModify. To execute the direct modification on the remote server, this function must rewrite the target subplan with a ForeignScan plan node that executes the direct modification on the remote server. The operation field of the ForeignScan must be set to the CmdType enumeration appropriately; that is, CMD_UPDATE for UPDATE, CMD_INSERT for INSERT, and CMD_DELETE for DELETE. See for additional information. If the PlanDirectModify pointer is set to NULL, no attempts to execute a direct modification on the remote server are taken. void BeginDirectModify (ForeignScanState *node, int eflags); Prepare to execute a direct modification on the remote server. This is called during executor startup. It should perform any initialization needed prior to the direct modification (that should be done upon the first call to IterateDirectModify). The ForeignScanState node has already been created, but its fdw_state field is still NULL. Information about the table to modify is accessible through the ForeignScanState node (in particular, from the underlying ForeignScan plan node, which contains any FDW-private information provided by PlanDirectModify). eflags contains flag bits describing the executor's operating mode for this plan node. Note that when (eflags & EXEC_FLAG_EXPLAIN_ONLY) is true, this function should not perform any externally-visible actions; it should only do the minimum required to make the node state valid for ExplainDirectModify and EndDirectModify. If the BeginDirectModify pointer is set to NULL, no attempts to execute a direct modification on the remote server are taken. TupleTableSlot * IterateDirectModify (ForeignScanState *node); When the INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE query doesn't have a RETURNING clause, just return NULL after a direct modification on the remote server. When the query has the clause, fetch one result containing the data needed for the RETURNING calculation, returning it in a tuple table slot (the node's ScanTupleSlot should be used for this purpose). The data that was actually inserted, updated or deleted must be stored in the es_result_relation_info->ri_projectReturning->pi_exprContext->ecxt_scantuple of the node's EState. Return NULL if no more rows are available. Note that this is called in a short-lived memory context that will be reset between invocations. Create a memory context in BeginDirectModify if you need longer-lived storage, or use the es_query_cxt of the node's EState. The rows returned must match the fdw_scan_tlist target list if one was supplied, otherwise they must match the row type of the foreign table being updated. If you choose to optimize away fetching columns that are not needed for the RETURNING calculation, you should insert nulls in those column positions, or else generate a fdw_scan_tlist list with those columns omitted. Whether the query has the clause or not, the query's reported row count must be incremented by the FDW itself. When the query doesn't have the clause, the FDW must also increment the row count for the ForeignScanState node in the EXPLAIN ANALYZE case. If the IterateDirectModify pointer is set to NULL, no attempts to execute a direct modification on the remote server are taken. void EndDirectModify (ForeignScanState *node); Clean up following a direct modification on the remote server. It is normally not important to release palloc'd memory, but for example open files and connections to the remote server should be cleaned up. If the EndDirectModify pointer is set to NULL, no attempts to execute a direct modification on the remote server are taken. If an FDW wishes to support late row locking (as described in ), it must provide the following callback functions: RowMarkType GetForeignRowMarkType (RangeTblEntry *rte, LockClauseStrength strength); Report which row-marking option to use for a foreign table. rte is the RangeTblEntry node for the table and strength describes the lock strength requested by the relevant FOR UPDATE/SHARE clause, if any. The result must be a member of the RowMarkType enum type. This function is called during query planning for each foreign table that appears in an UPDATE, DELETE, or SELECT FOR UPDATE/SHARE query and is not the target of UPDATE or DELETE. If the GetForeignRowMarkType pointer is set to NULL, the ROW_MARK_COPY option is always used. (This implies that RefetchForeignRow will never be called, so it need not be provided either.) See for more information. HeapTuple RefetchForeignRow (EState *estate, ExecRowMark *erm, Datum rowid, bool *updated); Re-fetch one tuple from the foreign table, after locking it if required. estate is global execution state for the query. erm is the ExecRowMark struct describing the target foreign table and the row lock type (if any) to acquire. rowid identifies the tuple to be fetched. updated is an output parameter. This function should return a palloc'ed copy of the fetched tuple, or NULL if the row lock couldn't be obtained. The row lock type to acquire is defined by erm->markType, which is the value previously returned by GetForeignRowMarkType. (ROW_MARK_REFERENCE means to just re-fetch the tuple without acquiring any lock, and ROW_MARK_COPY will never be seen by this routine.) In addition, *updated should be set to true if what was fetched was an updated version of the tuple rather than the same version previously obtained. (If the FDW cannot be sure about this, always returning true is recommended.) Note that by default, failure to acquire a row lock should result in raising an error; a NULL return is only appropriate if the SKIP LOCKED option is specified by erm->waitPolicy. The rowid is the ctid value previously read for the row to be re-fetched. Although the rowid value is passed as a Datum, it can currently only be a tid. The function API is chosen in hopes that it may be possible to allow other data types for row IDs in future. If the RefetchForeignRow pointer is set to NULL, attempts to re-fetch rows will fail with an error message. See for more information. bool RecheckForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node, TupleTableSlot *slot); Recheck that a previously-returned tuple still matches the relevant scan and join qualifiers, and possibly provide a modified version of the tuple. For foreign data wrappers which do not perform join pushdown, it will typically be more convenient to set this to NULL and instead set fdw_recheck_quals appropriately. When outer joins are pushed down, however, it isn't sufficient to reapply the checks relevant to all the base tables to the result tuple, even if all needed attributes are present, because failure to match some qualifier might result in some attributes going to NULL, rather than in no tuple being returned. RecheckForeignScan can recheck qualifiers and return true if they are still satisfied and false otherwise, but it can also store a replacement tuple into the supplied slot. To implement join pushdown, a foreign data wrapper will typically construct an alternative local join plan which is used only for rechecks; this will become the outer subplan of the ForeignScan. When a recheck is required, this subplan can be executed and the resulting tuple can be stored in the slot. This plan need not be efficient since no base table will return more than one row; for example, it may implement all joins as nested loops. The function GetExistingLocalJoinPath may be used to search existing paths for a suitable local join path, which can be used as the alternative local join plan. GetExistingLocalJoinPath searches for an unparameterized path in the path list of the specified join relation. (If it does not find such a path, it returns NULL, in which case a foreign data wrapper may build the local path by itself or may choose not to create access paths for that join.) void ExplainForeignScan (ForeignScanState *node, ExplainState *es); Print additional EXPLAIN output for a foreign table scan. This function can call ExplainPropertyText and related functions to add fields to the EXPLAIN output. The flag fields in es can be used to determine what to print, and the state of the ForeignScanState node can be inspected to provide run-time statistics in the EXPLAIN ANALYZE case. If the ExplainForeignScan pointer is set to NULL, no additional information is printed during EXPLAIN. void ExplainForeignModify (ModifyTableState *mtstate, ResultRelInfo *rinfo, List *fdw_private, int subplan_index, struct ExplainState *es); Print additional EXPLAIN output for a foreign table update. This function can call ExplainPropertyText and related functions to add fields to the EXPLAIN output. The flag fields in es can be used to determine what to print, and the state of the ModifyTableState node can be inspected to provide run-time statistics in the EXPLAIN ANALYZE case. The first four arguments are the same as for BeginForeignModify. If the ExplainForeignModify pointer is set to NULL, no additional information is printed during EXPLAIN. void ExplainDirectModify (ForeignScanState *node, ExplainState *es); Print additional EXPLAIN output for a direct modification on the remote server. This function can call ExplainPropertyText and related functions to add fields to the EXPLAIN output. The flag fields in es can be used to determine what to print, and the state of the ForeignScanState node can be inspected to provide run-time statistics in the EXPLAIN ANALYZE case. If the ExplainDirectModify pointer is set to NULL, no additional information is printed during EXPLAIN. bool AnalyzeForeignTable (Relation relation, AcquireSampleRowsFunc *func, BlockNumber *totalpages); This function is called when is executed on a foreign table. If the FDW can collect statistics for this foreign table, it should return true, and provide a pointer to a function that will collect sample rows from the table in func, plus the estimated size of the table in pages in totalpages. Otherwise, return false. If the FDW does not support collecting statistics for any tables, the AnalyzeForeignTable pointer can be set to NULL. If provided, the sample collection function must have the signature int AcquireSampleRowsFunc (Relation relation, int elevel, HeapTuple *rows, int targrows, double *totalrows, double *totaldeadrows); A random sample of up to targrows rows should be collected from the table and stored into the caller-provided rows array. The actual number of rows collected must be returned. In addition, store estimates of the total numbers of live and dead rows in the table into the output parameters totalrows and totaldeadrows. (Set totaldeadrows to zero if the FDW does not have any concept of dead rows.) List * ImportForeignSchema (ImportForeignSchemaStmt *stmt, Oid serverOid); Obtain a list of foreign table creation commands. This function is called when executing , and is passed the parse tree for that statement, as well as the OID of the foreign server to use. It should return a list of C strings, each of which must contain a command. These strings will be parsed and executed by the core server. Within the ImportForeignSchemaStmt struct, remote_schema is the name of the remote schema from which tables are to be imported. list_type identifies how to filter table names: FDW_IMPORT_SCHEMA_ALL means that all tables in the remote schema should be imported (in this case table_list is empty), FDW_IMPORT_SCHEMA_LIMIT_TO means to include only tables listed in table_list, and FDW_IMPORT_SCHEMA_EXCEPT means to exclude the tables listed in table_list. options is a list of options used for the import process. The meanings of the options are up to the FDW. For example, an FDW could use an option to define whether the NOT NULL attributes of columns should be imported. These options need not have anything to do with those supported by the FDW as database object options. The FDW may ignore the local_schema field of the ImportForeignSchemaStmt, because the core server will automatically insert that name into the parsed CREATE FOREIGN TABLE commands. The FDW does not have to concern itself with implementing the filtering specified by list_type and table_list, either, as the core server will automatically skip any returned commands for tables excluded according to those options. However, it's often useful to avoid the work of creating commands for excluded tables in the first place. The function IsImportableForeignTable() may be useful to test whether a given foreign-table name will pass the filter. If the FDW does not support importing table definitions, the ImportForeignSchema pointer can be set to NULL. A ForeignScan node can, optionally, support parallel execution. A parallel ForeignScan will be executed in multiple processes and should return each row only once across all cooperating processes. To do this, processes can coordinate through fixed size chunks of dynamic shared memory. This shared memory is not guaranteed to be mapped at the same address in every process, so pointers may not be used. The following callbacks are all optional in general, but required if parallel execution is to be supported. bool IsForeignScanParallelSafe(PlannerInfo *root, RelOptInfo *rel, RangeTblEntry *rte); Test whether a scan can be performed within a parallel worker. This function will only be called when the planner believes that a parallel plan might be possible, and should return true if it is safe for that scan to run within a parallel worker. This will generally not be the case if the remote data source has transaction semantics, unless the worker's connection to the data can somehow be made to share the same transaction context as the leader. If this callback is not defined, it is assumed that the scan must take place within the parallel leader. Note that returning true does not mean that the scan itself can be done in parallel, only that the scan can be performed within a parallel worker. Therefore, it can be useful to define this method even when parallel execution is not supported. Size EstimateDSMForeignScan(ForeignScanState *node, ParallelContext *pcxt); Estimate the amount of dynamic shared memory that will be required for parallel operation. This may be higher than the amount that will actually be used, but it must not be lower. The return value is in bytes. void InitializeDSMForeignScan(ForeignScanState *node, ParallelContext *pcxt, void *coordinate); Initialize the dynamic shared memory that will be required for parallel operation; coordinate points to an amount of allocated space equal to the return value of EstimateDSMForeignScan. void InitializeWorkerForeignScan(ForeignScanState *node, shm_toc *toc, void *coordinate); Initialize a parallel worker's custom state based on the shared state set up in the leader by InitializeDSMForeignScan. This callback is optional, and needs only be supplied if this custom path supports parallel execution. Several helper functions are exported from the core server so that authors of foreign data wrappers can get easy access to attributes of FDW-related objects, such as FDW options. To use any of these functions, you need to include the header file foreign/foreign.h in your source file. That header also defines the struct types that are returned by these functions. ForeignDataWrapper * GetForeignDataWrapper(Oid fdwid); This function returns a ForeignDataWrapper object for the foreign-data wrapper with the given OID. A ForeignDataWrapper object contains properties of the FDW (see foreign/foreign.h for details). ForeignServer * GetForeignServer(Oid serverid); This function returns a ForeignServer object for the foreign server with the given OID. A ForeignServer object contains properties of the server (see foreign/foreign.h for details). UserMapping * GetUserMapping(Oid userid, Oid serverid); This function returns a UserMapping object for the user mapping of the given role on the given server. (If there is no mapping for the specific user, it will return the mapping for PUBLIC, or throw error if there is none.) A UserMapping object contains properties of the user mapping (see foreign/foreign.h for details). ForeignTable * GetForeignTable(Oid relid); This function returns a ForeignTable object for the foreign table with the given OID. A ForeignTable object contains properties of the foreign table (see foreign/foreign.h for details). List * GetForeignColumnOptions(Oid relid, AttrNumber attnum); This function returns the per-column FDW options for the column with the given foreign table OID and attribute number, in the form of a list of DefElem. NIL is returned if the column has no options. Some object types have name-based lookup functions in addition to the OID-based ones: ForeignDataWrapper * GetForeignDataWrapperByName(const char *name, bool missing_ok); This function returns a ForeignDataWrapper object for the foreign-data wrapper with the given name. If the wrapper is not found, return NULL if missing_ok is true, otherwise raise an error. ForeignServer * GetForeignServerByName(const char *name, bool missing_ok); This function returns a ForeignServer object for the foreign server with the given name. If the server is not found, return NULL if missing_ok is true, otherwise raise an error. The FDW callback functions GetForeignRelSize, GetForeignPaths, GetForeignPlan, PlanForeignModify, GetForeignJoinPaths, GetForeignUpperPaths, and PlanDirectModify must fit into the workings of the PostgreSQL planner. Here are some notes about what they must do. The information in root and baserel can be used to reduce the amount of information that has to be fetched from the foreign table (and therefore reduce the cost). baserel->baserestrictinfo is particularly interesting, as it contains restriction quals (WHERE clauses) that should be used to filter the rows to be fetched. (The FDW itself is not required to enforce these quals, as the core executor can check them instead.) baserel->reltarget->exprs can be used to determine which columns need to be fetched; but note that it only lists columns that have to be emitted by the ForeignScan plan node, not columns that are used in qual evaluation but not output by the query. Various private fields are available for the FDW planning functions to keep information in. Generally, whatever you store in FDW private fields should be palloc'd, so that it will be reclaimed at the end of planning. baserel->fdw_private is a void pointer that is available for FDW planning functions to store information relevant to the particular foreign table. The core planner does not touch it except to initialize it to NULL when the RelOptInfo node is created. It is useful for passing information forward from GetForeignRelSize to GetForeignPaths and/or GetForeignPaths to GetForeignPlan, thereby avoiding recalculation. GetForeignPaths can identify the meaning of different access paths by storing private information in the fdw_private field of ForeignPath nodes. fdw_private is declared as a List pointer, but could actually contain anything since the core planner does not touch it. However, best practice is to use a representation that's dumpable by nodeToString, for use with debugging support available in the backend. GetForeignPlan can examine the fdw_private field of the selected ForeignPath node, and can generate fdw_exprs and fdw_private lists to be placed in the ForeignScan plan node, where they will be available at execution time. Both of these lists must be represented in a form that copyObject knows how to copy. The fdw_private list has no other restrictions and is not interpreted by the core backend in any way. The fdw_exprs list, if not NIL, is expected to contain expression trees that are intended to be executed at run time. These trees will undergo post-processing by the planner to make them fully executable. In GetForeignPlan, generally the passed-in target list can be copied into the plan node as-is. The passed scan_clauses list contains the same clauses as baserel->baserestrictinfo, but may be re-ordered for better execution efficiency. In simple cases the FDW can just strip RestrictInfo nodes from the scan_clauses list (using extract_actual_clauses) and put all the clauses into the plan node's qual list, which means that all the clauses will be checked by the executor at run time. More complex FDWs may be able to check some of the clauses internally, in which case those clauses can be removed from the plan node's qual list so that the executor doesn't waste time rechecking them. As an example, the FDW might identify some restriction clauses of the form foreign_variable = sub_expression, which it determines can be executed on the remote server given the locally-evaluated value of the sub_expression. The actual identification of such a clause should happen during GetForeignPaths, since it would affect the cost estimate for the path. The path's fdw_private field would probably include a pointer to the identified clause's RestrictInfo node. Then GetForeignPlan would remove that clause from scan_clauses, but add the sub_expression to fdw_exprs to ensure that it gets massaged into executable form. It would probably also put control information into the plan node's fdw_private field to tell the execution functions what to do at run time. The query transmitted to the remote server would involve something like WHERE foreign_variable = $1, with the parameter value obtained at run time from evaluation of the fdw_exprs expression tree. Any clauses removed from the plan node's qual list must instead be added to fdw_recheck_quals or rechecked by RecheckForeignScan in order to ensure correct behavior at the READ COMMITTED isolation level. When a concurrent update occurs for some other table involved in the query, the executor may need to verify that all of the original quals are still satisfied for the tuple, possibly against a different set of parameter values. Using fdw_recheck_quals is typically easier than implementing checks inside RecheckForeignScan, but this method will be insufficient when outer joins have been pushed down, since the join tuples in that case might have some fields go to NULL without rejecting the tuple entirely. Another ForeignScan field that can be filled by FDWs is fdw_scan_tlist, which describes the tuples returned by the FDW for this plan node. For simple foreign table scans this can be set to NIL, implying that the returned tuples have the row type declared for the foreign table. A non-NIL value must be a target list (list of TargetEntrys) containing Vars and/or expressions representing the returned columns. This might be used, for example, to show that the FDW has omitted some columns that it noticed won't be needed for the query. Also, if the FDW can compute expressions used by the query more cheaply than can be done locally, it could add those expressions to fdw_scan_tlist. Note that join plans (created from paths made by GetForeignJoinPaths) must always supply fdw_scan_tlist to describe the set of columns they will return. The FDW should always construct at least one path that depends only on the table's restriction clauses. In join queries, it might also choose to construct path(s) that depend on join clauses, for example foreign_variable = local_variable. Such clauses will not be found in baserel->baserestrictinfo but must be sought in the relation's join lists. A path using such a clause is called a parameterized path. It must identify the other relations used in the selected join clause(s) with a suitable value of param_info; use get_baserel_parampathinfo to compute that value. In GetForeignPlan, the local_variable portion of the join clause would be added to fdw_exprs, and then at run time the case works the same as for an ordinary restriction clause. If an FDW supports remote joins, GetForeignJoinPaths should produce ForeignPaths for potential remote joins in much the same way as GetForeignPaths works for base tables. Information about the intended join can be passed forward to GetForeignPlan in the same ways described above. However, baserestrictinfo is not relevant for join relations; instead, the relevant join clauses for a particular join are passed to GetForeignJoinPaths as a separate parameter (extra->restrictlist). An FDW might additionally support direct execution of some plan actions that are above the level of scans and joins, such as grouping or aggregation. To offer such options, the FDW should generate paths and insert them into the appropriate upper relation. For example, a path representing remote aggregation should be inserted into the UPPERREL_GROUP_AGG relation, using add_path. This path will be compared on a cost basis with local aggregation performed by reading a simple scan path for the foreign relation (note that such a path must also be supplied, else there will be an error at plan time). If the remote-aggregation path wins, which it usually would, it will be converted into a plan in the usual way, by calling GetForeignPlan. The recommended place to generate such paths is in the GetForeignUpperPaths callback function, which is called for each upper relation (i.e., each post-scan/join processing step), if all the base relations of the query come from the same FDW. PlanForeignModify and the other callbacks described in are designed around the assumption that the foreign relation will be scanned in the usual way and then individual row updates will be driven by a local ModifyTable plan node. This approach is necessary for the general case where an update requires reading local tables as well as foreign tables. However, if the operation could be executed entirely by the foreign server, the FDW could generate a path representing that and insert it into the UPPERREL_FINAL upper relation, where it would compete against the ModifyTable approach. This approach could also be used to implement remote SELECT FOR UPDATE, rather than using the row locking callbacks described in . Keep in mind that a path inserted into UPPERREL_FINAL is responsible for implementing all behavior of the query. When planning an UPDATE or DELETE, PlanForeignModify and PlanDirectModify can look up the RelOptInfo struct for the foreign table and make use of the baserel->fdw_private data previously created by the scan-planning functions. However, in INSERT the target table is not scanned so there is no RelOptInfo for it. The List returned by PlanForeignModify has the same restrictions as the fdw_private list of a ForeignScan plan node, that is it must contain only structures that copyObject knows how to copy. INSERT with an ON CONFLICT clause does not support specifying the conflict target, as unique constraints or exclusion constraints on remote tables are not locally known. This in turn implies that ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE is not supported, since the specification is mandatory there. If an FDW's underlying storage mechanism has a concept of locking individual rows to prevent concurrent updates of those rows, it is usually worthwhile for the FDW to perform row-level locking with as close an approximation as practical to the semantics used in ordinary PostgreSQL tables. There are multiple considerations involved in this. One key decision to be made is whether to perform early locking or late locking. In early locking, a row is locked when it is first retrieved from the underlying store, while in late locking, the row is locked only when it is known that it needs to be locked. (The difference arises because some rows may be discarded by locally-checked restriction or join conditions.) Early locking is much simpler and avoids extra round trips to a remote store, but it can cause locking of rows that need not have been locked, resulting in reduced concurrency or even unexpected deadlocks. Also, late locking is only possible if the row to be locked can be uniquely re-identified later. Preferably the row identifier should identify a specific version of the row, as PostgreSQL TIDs do. By default, PostgreSQL ignores locking considerations when interfacing to FDWs, but an FDW can perform early locking without any explicit support from the core code. The API functions described in , which were added in PostgreSQL 9.5, allow an FDW to use late locking if it wishes. An additional consideration is that in READ COMMITTED isolation mode, PostgreSQL may need to re-check restriction and join conditions against an updated version of some target tuple. Rechecking join conditions requires re-obtaining copies of the non-target rows that were previously joined to the target tuple. When working with standard PostgreSQL tables, this is done by including the TIDs of the non-target tables in the column list projected through the join, and then re-fetching non-target rows when required. This approach keeps the join data set compact, but it requires inexpensive re-fetch capability, as well as a TID that can uniquely identify the row version to be re-fetched. By default, therefore, the approach used with foreign tables is to include a copy of the entire row fetched from a foreign table in the column list projected through the join. This puts no special demands on the FDW but can result in reduced performance of merge and hash joins. An FDW that is capable of meeting the re-fetch requirements can choose to do it the first way. For an UPDATE or DELETE on a foreign table, it is recommended that the ForeignScan operation on the target table perform early locking on the rows that it fetches, perhaps via the equivalent of SELECT FOR UPDATE. An FDW can detect whether a table is an UPDATE/DELETE target at plan time by comparing its relid to root->parse->resultRelation, or at execution time by using ExecRelationIsTargetRelation(). An alternative possibility is to perform late locking within the ExecForeignUpdate or ExecForeignDelete callback, but no special support is provided for this. For foreign tables that are specified to be locked by a SELECT FOR UPDATE/SHARE command, the ForeignScan operation can again perform early locking by fetching tuples with the equivalent of SELECT FOR UPDATE/SHARE. To perform late locking instead, provide the callback functions defined in . In GetForeignRowMarkType, select rowmark option ROW_MARK_EXCLUSIVE, ROW_MARK_NOKEYEXCLUSIVE, ROW_MARK_SHARE, or ROW_MARK_KEYSHARE depending on the requested lock strength. (The core code will act the same regardless of which of these four options you choose.) Elsewhere, you can detect whether a foreign table was specified to be locked by this type of command by using get_plan_rowmark at plan time, or ExecFindRowMark at execution time; you must check not only whether a non-null rowmark struct is returned, but that its strength field is not LCS_NONE. Lastly, for foreign tables that are used in an UPDATE, DELETE or SELECT FOR UPDATE/SHARE command but are not specified to be row-locked, you can override the default choice to copy entire rows by having GetForeignRowMarkType select option ROW_MARK_REFERENCE when it sees lock strength LCS_NONE. This will cause RefetchForeignRow to be called with that value for markType; it should then re-fetch the row without acquiring any new lock. (If you have a GetForeignRowMarkType function but don't wish to re-fetch unlocked rows, select option ROW_MARK_COPY for LCS_NONE.) See src/include/nodes/lockoptions.h, the comments for RowMarkType and PlanRowMark in src/include/nodes/plannodes.h, and the comments for ExecRowMark in src/include/nodes/execnodes.h for additional information.