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> patches are not lost... Aggregate doc patches: The patches are attached. Be great if you could check them over to make sure all relevant content (and markup) is there... Isaac Wilcox
1898 lines
58 KiB
Plaintext
1898 lines
58 KiB
Plaintext
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$Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/sql.sgml,v 1.11 2000/06/20 18:04:18 momjian Exp $
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-->
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<chapter id="sql">
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<title>SQL</title>
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<abstract>
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<para>
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This chapter introduces the mathematical concepts behind
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relational databases. It is not required reading, so if you bog
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down or want to get straight to some simple examples feel free to
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jump ahead to the next chapter and come back when you have more
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time and patience. This stuff is supposed to be fun!
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</para>
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<para>
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This material originally appeared as a part of
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Stefan Simkovics' Master's Thesis
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(<xref linkend="SIM98" endterm="SIM98">).
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</para>
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</abstract>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL</acronym> has become the most popular relational query
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language.
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The name "<acronym>SQL</acronym>" is an abbreviation for
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<firstterm>Structured Query Language</firstterm>.
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In 1974 Donald Chamberlin and others defined the
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language SEQUEL (<firstterm>Structured English Query
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Language</firstterm>) at IBM
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Research. This language was first implemented in an IBM
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prototype called SEQUEL-XRM in 1974-75. In 1976-77 a revised version
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of SEQUEL called SEQUEL/2 was defined and the name was changed to
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<acronym>SQL</acronym>
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subsequently.
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</para>
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<para>
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A new prototype called System R was developed by IBM in 1977. System R
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implemented a large subset of SEQUEL/2 (now <acronym>SQL</acronym>)
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and a number of
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changes were made to <acronym>SQL</acronym> during the project.
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System R was installed in
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a number of user sites, both internal IBM sites and also some selected
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customer sites. Thanks to the success and acceptance of System R at
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those user sites IBM started to develop commercial products that
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implemented the <acronym>SQL</acronym> language based on the System
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R technology.
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</para>
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<para>
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Over the next years IBM and also a number of other vendors announced
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<acronym>SQL</acronym> products such as
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<productname>SQL/DS</productname> (IBM),
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<productname>DB2</productname> (IBM),
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<productname>ORACLE</productname> (Oracle Corp.),
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<productname>DG/SQL</productname> (Data General Corp.),
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and <productname>SYBASE</productname> (Sybase Inc.).
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</para>
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<para>
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<acronym>SQL</acronym> is also an official standard now. In 1982
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the American National
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Standards Institute (<acronym>ANSI</acronym>) chartered its
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Database Committee X3H2 to
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develop a proposal for a standard relational language. This proposal
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was ratified in 1986 and consisted essentially of the IBM dialect of
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<acronym>SQL</acronym>. In 1987 this <acronym>ANSI</acronym>
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standard was also accepted as an international
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standard by the International Organization for Standardization
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(<acronym>ISO</acronym>).
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This original standard version of <acronym>SQL</acronym> is often
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referred to,
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informally, as "<abbrev>SQL/86</abbrev>". In 1989 the original
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standard was extended
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and this new standard is often, again informally, referred to as
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"<abbrev>SQL/89</abbrev>". Also in 1989, a related standard called
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<firstterm>Database Language Embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym></firstterm>
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(<acronym>ESQL</acronym>) was developed.
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</para>
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<para>
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The <acronym>ISO</acronym> and <acronym>ANSI</acronym> committees
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have been working for many years on the
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definition of a greatly expanded version of the original standard,
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referred to informally as <firstterm><acronym>SQL2</acronym></firstterm>
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or <firstterm><acronym>SQL/92</acronym></firstterm>. This version became a
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ratified standard - "International Standard ISO/IEC 9075:1992,
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Database Language <acronym>SQL</acronym>" - in late 1992.
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<acronym>SQL/92</acronym> is the version
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normally meant when people refer to "the <acronym>SQL</acronym>
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standard". A detailed
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description of <acronym>SQL/92</acronym> is given in
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<xref linkend="DATE97" endterm="DATE97">. At the time of
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writing this document a new standard informally referred to
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as <firstterm><acronym>SQL3</acronym></firstterm>
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is under development. It is planned to make <acronym>SQL</acronym>
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a Turing-complete
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language, i.e. all computable queries (e.g. recursive queries) will be
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possible. This is a very complex task and therefore the completion of
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the new standard can not be expected before 1999.
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</para>
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<sect1 id="rel-model">
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<title>The Relational Data Model</title>
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<para>
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As mentioned before, <acronym>SQL</acronym> is a relational
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language. That means it is
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based on the <firstterm>relational data model</firstterm>
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first published by E.F. Codd in
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1970. We will give a formal description of the relational model
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later (in
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<xref linkend="formal-notion" endterm="formal-notion">)
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but first we want to have a look at it from a more intuitive
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point of view.
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</para>
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<para>
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A <firstterm>relational database</firstterm> is a database that is
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perceived by its
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users as a <firstterm>collection of tables</firstterm> (and
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nothing else but tables).
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A table consists of rows and columns where each row represents a
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record and each column represents an attribute of the records
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contained in the table.
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<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig">
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shows an example of a database consisting of three tables:
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<itemizedlist>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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SUPPLIER is a table storing the number
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(SNO), the name (SNAME) and the city (CITY) of a supplier.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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PART is a table storing the number (PNO) the name (PNAME) and
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the price (PRICE) of a part.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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SELLS stores information about which part (PNO) is sold by which
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supplier (SNO).
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It serves in a sense to connect the other two tables together.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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</itemizedlist>
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<example>
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<title id="supplier-fig">The Suppliers and Parts Database</title>
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<programlisting>
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SUPPLIER: SELLS:
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SNO | SNAME | CITY SNO | PNO
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----+---------+-------- -----+-----
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1 | Smith | London 1 | 1
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2 | Jones | Paris 1 | 2
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3 | Adams | Vienna 2 | 4
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4 | Blake | Rome 3 | 1
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3 | 3
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4 | 2
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PART: 4 | 3
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PNO | PNAME | PRICE 4 | 4
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----+---------+---------
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1 | Screw | 10
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2 | Nut | 8
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3 | Bolt | 15
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4 | Cam | 25
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</programlisting>
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</example>
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</para>
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<para>
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The tables PART and SUPPLIER may be regarded as
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<firstterm>entities</firstterm> and
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SELLS may be regarded as a <firstterm>relationship</firstterm>
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between a particular
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part and a particular supplier.
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</para>
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<para>
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As we will see later, <acronym>SQL</acronym> operates on tables
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like the ones just
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defined but before that we will study the theory of the relational
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model.
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</para>
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</sect1>
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<sect1>
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<title id="formal-notion">Relational Data Model Formalities</title>
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<para>
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The mathematical concept underlying the relational model is the
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set-theoretic <firstterm>relation</firstterm> which is a subset of
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the Cartesian
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product of a list of domains. This set-theoretic relation gives
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the model its name (do not confuse it with the relationship from the
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<firstterm>Entity-Relationship model</firstterm>).
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Formally a domain is simply a set of
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values. For example the set of integers is a domain. Also the set of
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character strings of length 20 and the real numbers are examples of
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domains.
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</para>
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<para>
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<!--
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\begin{definition}
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The <firstterm>Cartesian product</firstterm> of domains $D_{1},
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D_{2},\ldots, D_{k}$ written
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\mbox{$D_{1} \times D_{2} \times \ldots \times D_{k}$} is the set of
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all $k$-tuples $(v_{1},v_{2},\ldots,v_{k})$ such that \mbox{$v_{1} \in
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D_{1}, v_{2} \in D_{2}, \ldots, v_{k} \in D_{k}$}.
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\end{definition}
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-->
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The <firstterm>Cartesian product</firstterm> of domains
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>,
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...
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<parameter>D<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>,
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written
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter> ×
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... ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>
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is the set of all k-tuples
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<parameter>v<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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<parameter>v<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>,
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...
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<parameter>v<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>,
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such that
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<parameter>v<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ∈
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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<parameter>v<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ∈
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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...
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<parameter>v<subscript>k</subscript></parameter> ∈
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<parameter>D<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>.
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</para>
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<para>
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For example, when we have
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<!--
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$k=2$, $D_{1}=\{0,1\}$ and
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$D_{2}=\{a,b,c\}$, then $D_{1} \times D_{2}$ is
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$\{(0,a),(0,b),(0,c),(1,a),(1,b),(1,c)\}$.
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-->
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<parameter>k</parameter>=2,
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>=<literal>{0,1}</literal> and
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>=<literal>{a,b,c}</literal> then
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter> is
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<literal>{(0,a),(0,b),(0,c),(1,a),(1,b),(1,c)}</literal>.
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</para>
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<para>
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<!--
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\begin{definition}
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A Relation is any subset of the Cartesian product of one or more
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domains: $R \subseteq$ \mbox{$D_{1} \times D_{2} \times \ldots \times D_{k}$}
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\end{definition}
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-->
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A Relation is any subset of the Cartesian product of one or more
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domains: <parameter>R</parameter> ⊆
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter> ×
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... ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>.
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</para>
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<para>
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For example <literal>{(0,a),(0,b),(1,a)}</literal> is a relation;
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it is in fact a subset of
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>
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mentioned above.
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</para>
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<para>
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The members of a relation are called tuples. Each relation of some
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Cartesian product
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<parameter>D<subscript>1</subscript></parameter> ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>2</subscript></parameter> ×
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... ×
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<parameter>D<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>
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is said to have arity <literal>k</literal> and is therefore a set
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of <literal>k</literal>-tuples.
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</para>
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<para>
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A relation can be viewed as a table (as we already did, remember
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<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig"> where
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every tuple is represented by a row and every column corresponds to
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one component of a tuple. Giving names (called attributes) to the
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columns leads to the definition of a
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<firstterm>relation scheme</firstterm>.
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</para>
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<para>
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<!--
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\begin{definition}
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A {\it relation scheme} $R$ is a finite set of attributes
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\mbox{$\{A_{1},A_{2},\ldots,A_{k}\}$}. There is a domain $D_{i}$ for
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each attribute $A_{i}, 1 \le i \le k$ where the values of the
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attributes are taken from. We often write a relation scheme as
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\mbox{$R(A_{1},A_{2},\ldots,A_{k})$}.
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\end{definition}
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-->
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A <firstterm>relation scheme</firstterm> <literal>R</literal> is a
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finite set of attributes
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<parameter>A<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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<parameter>A<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>,
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...
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<parameter>A<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>.
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There is a domain
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<parameter>D<subscript>i</subscript></parameter>,
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for each attribute
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<parameter>A<subscript>i</subscript></parameter>,
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1 <= <literal>i</literal> <= <literal>k</literal>,
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where the values of the attributes are taken from. We often write
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a relation scheme as
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<literal>R(<parameter>A<subscript>1</subscript></parameter>,
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<parameter>A<subscript>2</subscript></parameter>,
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...
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<parameter>A<subscript>k</subscript></parameter>)</literal>.
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<note>
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<para>
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A <firstterm>relation scheme</firstterm> is just a kind of template
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whereas a <firstterm>relation</firstterm> is an instance of a
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<firstterm>relation
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scheme</firstterm>. The relation consists of tuples (and can
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therefore be
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viewed as a table); not so the relation scheme.
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</para>
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</note>
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</para>
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<sect2>
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<title id="domains">Domains vs. Data Types</title>
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<para>
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We often talked about <firstterm>domains</firstterm>
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in the last section. Recall that a
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domain is, formally, just a set of values (e.g., the set of integers or
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the real numbers). In terms of database systems we often talk of
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<firstterm>data types</firstterm> instead of domains.
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When we define a table we have to make
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a decision about which attributes to include. Additionally we
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have to decide which kind of data is going to be stored as
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attribute values. For example the values of
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<classname>SNAME</classname> from the table
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<classname>SUPPLIER</classname> will be character strings,
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whereas <classname>SNO</classname> will store
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integers. We define this by assigning a data type to each
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attribute. The type of <classname>SNAME</classname> will be
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<type>VARCHAR(20)</type> (this is the <acronym>SQL</acronym> type
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for character strings of length <= 20),
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the type of <classname>SNO</classname> will be
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<type>INTEGER</type>. With the assignment of a data type we also
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have selected
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a domain for an attribute. The domain of
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<classname>SNAME</classname> is the set of all
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character strings of length <= 20,
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the domain of <classname>SNO</classname> is the set of
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all integer numbers.
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</para>
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</sect2>
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</sect1>
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<sect1>
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<title id="operations">Operations in the Relational Data Model</title>
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<para>
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In the previous section
|
|
(<xref linkend="formal-notion" endterm="formal-notion">)
|
|
we defined the mathematical notion of
|
|
the relational model. Now we know how the data can be stored using a
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relational data model but we do not know what to do with all these
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tables to retrieve something from the database yet. For example somebody
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could ask for the names of all suppliers that sell the part
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'Screw'. Therefore two rather different kinds of notations for
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expressing operations on relations have been defined:
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<itemizedlist>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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The <firstterm>Relational Algebra</firstterm> which is an
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algebraic notation,
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where queries are expressed by applying specialized operators to the
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relations.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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The <firstterm>Relational Calculus</firstterm> which is a
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logical notation,
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|
where queries are expressed by formulating some logical restrictions
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that the tuples in the answer must satisfy.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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</itemizedlist>
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</para>
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<sect2>
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<title id="rel-alg">Relational Algebra</title>
|
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<para>
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The <firstterm>Relational Algebra</firstterm> was introduced by
|
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E. F. Codd in 1972. It consists of a set of operations on relations:
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<itemizedlist>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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SELECT (σ): extracts <firstterm>tuples</firstterm> from
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a relation that
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satisfy a given restriction. Let <parameter>R</parameter> be a
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table that contains an attribute
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<parameter>A</parameter>.
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σ<subscript>A=a</subscript>(R) = {t ∈ R ∣ t(A) = a}
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|
where <literal>t</literal> denotes a
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tuple of <parameter>R</parameter> and <literal>t(A)</literal>
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|
denotes the value of attribute <parameter>A</parameter> of
|
|
tuple <literal>t</literal>.
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|
</para>
|
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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|
PROJECT (π): extracts specified
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<firstterm>attributes</firstterm> (columns) from a
|
|
relation. Let <classname>R</classname> be a relation
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|
that contains an attribute <classname>X</classname>.
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|
π<subscript>X</subscript>(<classname>R</classname>) = {t(X) ∣ t ∈ <classname>R</classname>},
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|
where <literal>t</literal>(<classname>X</classname>) denotes the value of
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attribute <classname>X</classname> of tuple <literal>t</literal>.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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PRODUCT (×): builds the Cartesian product of two
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relations. Let <classname>R</classname> be a table with arity
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<literal>k</literal><subscript>1</subscript> and let
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<classname>S</classname> be a table with
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arity <literal>k</literal><subscript>2</subscript>.
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<classname>R</classname> × <classname>S</classname>
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|
is the set of all
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<literal>k</literal><subscript>1</subscript>
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|
+ <literal>k</literal><subscript>2</subscript>-tuples
|
|
whose first <literal>k</literal><subscript>1</subscript>
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|
components form a tuple in <classname>R</classname> and whose last
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<literal>k</literal><subscript>2</subscript> components form a
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tuple in <classname>S</classname>.
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</para>
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</listitem>
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<listitem>
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<para>
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UNION (∪): builds the set-theoretic union of two
|
|
tables. Given the tables <classname>R</classname> and
|
|
<classname>S</classname> (both must have the same arity),
|
|
the union <classname>R</classname> ∪ <classname>S</classname>
|
|
is the set of tuples that are in <classname>R</classname>
|
|
or <classname>S</classname> or both.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
INTERSECT (∩): builds the set-theoretic intersection of two
|
|
tables. Given the tables <classname>R</classname> and
|
|
<classname>S</classname>,
|
|
<classname>R</classname> ∩ <classname>S</classname> is the
|
|
set of tuples
|
|
that are in <classname>R</classname> and in
|
|
<classname>S</classname>.
|
|
We again require that <classname>R</classname> and
|
|
<classname>S</classname> have the
|
|
same arity.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
DIFFERENCE (− or ∖): builds the set difference of
|
|
two tables. Let <classname>R</classname> and <classname>S</classname>
|
|
again be two tables with the same
|
|
arity. <classname>R</classname> - <classname>S</classname>
|
|
is the set of tuples in <classname>R</classname> but not in
|
|
<classname>S</classname>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
JOIN (∏): connects two tables by their common
|
|
attributes. Let <classname>R</classname> be a table with the
|
|
attributes <classname>A</classname>,<classname>B</classname>
|
|
and <classname>C</classname> and
|
|
let <classname>S</classname> be a table with the attributes
|
|
<classname>C</classname>,<classname>D</classname>
|
|
and <classname>E</classname>. There is one
|
|
attribute common to both relations,
|
|
the attribute <classname>C</classname>.
|
|
<!--
|
|
<classname>R</classname> ∏ <classname>S</classname> =
|
|
π<subscript><classname>R</classname>.<classname>A</classname>,<classname>R</classname>.<classname>B</classname>,<classname>R</classname>.<classname>C</classname>,<classname>S</classname>.<classname>D</classname>,<classname>S</classname>.<classname>E</classname></subscript>(σ<subscript><classname>R</classname>.<classname>C</classname>=<classname>S</classname>.<classname>C</classname></subscript>(<classname>R</classname> × <classname>S</classname>)).
|
|
-->
|
|
R ∏ S = π<subscript>R.A,R.B,R.C,S.D,S.E</subscript>(σ<subscript>R.C=S.C</subscript>(R × S)).
|
|
What are we doing here? We first calculate the Cartesian
|
|
product
|
|
<classname>R</classname> × <classname>S</classname>.
|
|
Then we select those tuples whose values for the common
|
|
attribute <classname>C</classname> are equal
|
|
(σ<subscript>R.C = S.C</subscript>).
|
|
Now we have a table
|
|
that contains the attribute <classname>C</classname>
|
|
two times and we correct this by
|
|
projecting out the duplicate column.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="join-example">An Inner Join</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Let's have a look at the tables that are produced by evaluating the steps
|
|
necessary for a join.
|
|
Let the following two tables be given:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
R: S:
|
|
A | B | C C | D | E
|
|
---+---+--- ---+---+---
|
|
1 | 2 | 3 3 | a | b
|
|
4 | 5 | 6 6 | c | d
|
|
7 | 8 | 9
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
First we calculate the Cartesian product
|
|
<classname>R</classname> × <classname>S</classname> and
|
|
get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
R x S:
|
|
A | B | R.C | S.C | D | E
|
|
---+---+-----+-----+---+---
|
|
1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | a | b
|
|
1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | c | d
|
|
4 | 5 | 6 | 3 | a | b
|
|
4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | c | d
|
|
7 | 8 | 9 | 3 | a | b
|
|
7 | 8 | 9 | 6 | c | d
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
After the selection
|
|
σ<subscript>R.C=S.C</subscript>(R × S)
|
|
we get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
A | B | R.C | S.C | D | E
|
|
---+---+-----+-----+---+---
|
|
1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | a | b
|
|
4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | c | d
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To remove the duplicate column
|
|
<classname>S</classname>.<classname>C</classname>
|
|
we project it out by the following operation:
|
|
π<subscript>R.A,R.B,R.C,S.D,S.E</subscript>(σ<subscript>R.C=S.C</subscript>(R × S))
|
|
and get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
A | B | C | D | E
|
|
---+---+---+---+---
|
|
1 | 2 | 3 | a | b
|
|
4 | 5 | 6 | c | d
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
DIVIDE (÷): Let <classname>R</classname> be a table
|
|
with the attributes A, B, C, and D and let
|
|
<classname>S</classname> be a table with the attributes
|
|
C and D.
|
|
Then we define the division as:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
R ÷ S = {t ∣ ∀ t<subscript>s</subscript> ∈ S ∃ t<subscript>r</subscript> ∈ R
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
such that
|
|
t<subscript>r</subscript>(A,B)=t∧t<subscript>r</subscript>(C,D)=t<subscript>s</subscript>}
|
|
where
|
|
t<subscript>r</subscript>(x,y)
|
|
denotes a
|
|
tuple of table <classname>R</classname> that consists only of
|
|
the components <literal>x</literal> and <literal>y</literal>.
|
|
Note that the tuple <literal>t</literal> only consists of the
|
|
components <classname>A</classname> and
|
|
<classname>B</classname> of relation <classname>R</classname>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para id="divide-example">
|
|
Given the following tables
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
R: S:
|
|
A | B | C | D C | D
|
|
---+---+---+--- ---+---
|
|
a | b | c | d c | d
|
|
a | b | e | f e | f
|
|
b | c | e | f
|
|
e | d | c | d
|
|
e | d | e | f
|
|
a | b | d | e
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
R ÷ S
|
|
is derived as
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
A | B
|
|
---+---
|
|
a | b
|
|
e | d
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
For a more detailed description and definition of the relational
|
|
algebra refer to [<xref linkend="ULL88" endterm="ULL88">] or
|
|
[<xref linkend="DATE94" endterm="DATE94">].
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="suppl-rel-alg">A Query Using Relational Algebra</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Recall that we formulated all those relational operators to be able to
|
|
retrieve data from the database. Let's return to our example from
|
|
the previous
|
|
section (<xref linkend="operations" endterm="operations">)
|
|
where someone wanted to know the names of all
|
|
suppliers that sell the part <literal>Screw</literal>.
|
|
This question can be answered
|
|
using relational algebra by the following operation:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
π<subscript>SUPPLIER.SNAME</subscript>(σ<subscript>PART.PNAME='Screw'</subscript>(SUPPLIER ∏ SELLS ∏ PART))
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
We call such an operation a query. If we evaluate the above query
|
|
against the our example tables
|
|
(<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig">)
|
|
we will obtain the following result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNAME
|
|
-------
|
|
Smith
|
|
Adams
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2 id="rel-calc">
|
|
<title>Relational Calculus</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The relational calculus is based on the
|
|
<firstterm>first order logic</firstterm>. There are
|
|
two variants of the relational calculus:
|
|
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The <firstterm>Domain Relational Calculus</firstterm>
|
|
(<acronym>DRC</acronym>), where variables
|
|
stand for components (attributes) of the tuples.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
The <firstterm>Tuple Relational Calculus</firstterm>
|
|
(<acronym>TRC</acronym>), where variables stand for tuples.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
We want to discuss the tuple relational calculus only because it is
|
|
the one underlying the most relational languages. For a detailed
|
|
discussion on <acronym>DRC</acronym> (and also
|
|
<acronym>TRC</acronym>) see
|
|
<xref linkend="DATE94" endterm="DATE94">
|
|
or
|
|
<xref linkend="ULL88" endterm="ULL88">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Tuple Relational Calculus</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The queries used in <acronym>TRC</acronym> are of the following
|
|
form:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
x(A) ∣ F(x)
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
where <literal>x</literal> is a tuple variable
|
|
<classname>A</classname> is a set of attributes and <literal>F</literal> is a
|
|
formula. The resulting relation consists of all tuples
|
|
<literal>t(A)</literal> that satisfy <literal>F(t)</literal>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to answer the question from example
|
|
<xref linkend="suppl-rel-alg" endterm="suppl-rel-alg">
|
|
using <acronym>TRC</acronym> we formulate the following query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
{x(SNAME) ∣ x ∈ SUPPLIER ∧
|
|
∃ y ∈ SELLS ∃ z ∈ PART (y(SNO)=x(SNO) ∧
|
|
z(PNO)=y(PNO) ∧
|
|
z(PNAME)='Screw')}
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Evaluating the query against the tables from
|
|
<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig">
|
|
again leads to the same result
|
|
as in
|
|
<xref linkend="suppl-rel-alg" endterm="suppl-rel-alg">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2 id="alg-vs-calc">
|
|
<title>Relational Algebra vs. Relational Calculus</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The relational algebra and the relational calculus have the same
|
|
<firstterm>expressive power</firstterm>; i.e. all queries that
|
|
can be formulated using relational algebra can also be formulated
|
|
using the relational calculus and vice versa.
|
|
This was first proved by E. F. Codd in
|
|
1972. This proof is based on an algorithm ("Codd's reduction
|
|
algorithm") by which an arbitrary expression of the relational
|
|
calculus can be reduced to a semantically equivalent expression of
|
|
relational algebra. For a more detailed discussion on that refer to
|
|
<xref linkend="DATE94" endterm="DATE94">
|
|
and
|
|
<xref linkend="ULL88" endterm="ULL88">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
It is sometimes said that languages based on the relational calculus
|
|
are "higher level" or "more declarative" than languages based on
|
|
relational algebra because the algebra (partially) specifies the order
|
|
of operations while the calculus leaves it to a compiler or
|
|
interpreter to determine the most efficient order of evaluation.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
|
|
<sect1 id="sql-language">
|
|
<title>The <acronym>SQL</acronym> Language</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
As is the case with most modern relational languages,
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym> is based on the tuple
|
|
relational calculus. As a result every query that can be formulated
|
|
using the tuple relational calculus (or equivalently, relational
|
|
algebra) can also be formulated using
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym>. There are, however,
|
|
capabilities beyond the scope of relational algebra or calculus. Here
|
|
is a list of some additional features provided by
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym> that are not
|
|
part of relational algebra or calculus:
|
|
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Commands for insertion, deletion or modification of data.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Arithmetic capability: In <acronym>SQL</acronym> it is possible
|
|
to involve
|
|
arithmetic operations as well as comparisons, e.g.
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
A < B + 3.
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
Note
|
|
that + or other arithmetic operators appear neither in relational
|
|
algebra nor in relational calculus.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Assignment and Print Commands: It is possible to print a
|
|
relation constructed by a query and to assign a computed relation to a
|
|
relation name.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
Aggregate Functions: Operations such as
|
|
<firstterm>average</firstterm>, <firstterm>sum</firstterm>,
|
|
<firstterm>max</firstterm>, etc. can be applied to columns of a
|
|
relation to
|
|
obtain a single quantity.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<sect2 id="select">
|
|
<title id="select-title">Select</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The most often used command in <acronym>SQL</acronym> is the
|
|
SELECT statement,
|
|
used to retrieve data. The syntax is:
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT]
|
|
{ * | <replaceable class="parameter">expr_1</replaceable> [AS <replaceable class="parameter">c_alias_1</replaceable>] [, ...
|
|
[, <replaceable class="parameter">expr_k</replaceable> [AS <replaceable class="parameter">c_alias_k</replaceable>]]]}
|
|
FROM <replaceable class="parameter">table_name_1</replaceable> [<replaceable class="parameter">t_alias_1</replaceable>]
|
|
[, ... [, <replaceable class="parameter">table_name_n</replaceable> [<replaceable class="parameter">t_alias_n</replaceable>]]]
|
|
[WHERE <replaceable class="parameter">condition</replaceable>]
|
|
[GROUP BY <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_i</replaceable>
|
|
[,... [, <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_j</replaceable>]] [HAVING <replaceable class="parameter">condition</replaceable>]]
|
|
[{UNION [ALL] | INTERSECT | EXCEPT} SELECT ...]
|
|
[ORDER BY <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_i</replaceable> [ASC|DESC]
|
|
[, ... [, <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_j</replaceable> [ASC|DESC]]]];
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Now we will illustrate the complex syntax of the SELECT statement
|
|
with various examples. The tables used for the examples are defined in
|
|
<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Simple Selects</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Here are some simple examples using a SELECT statement:
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="simple-query">Simple Query with Qualification</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
To retrieve all tuples from table PART where the attribute PRICE is
|
|
greater than 10 we formulate the following query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT * FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PRICE > 10;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and get the table:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
PNO | PNAME | PRICE
|
|
-----+---------+--------
|
|
3 | Bolt | 15
|
|
4 | Cam | 25
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Using "*" in the SELECT statement will deliver all attributes from
|
|
the table. If we want to retrieve only the attributes PNAME and PRICE
|
|
from table PART we use the statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT PNAME, PRICE
|
|
FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PRICE > 10;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
In this case the result is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
PNAME | PRICE
|
|
--------+--------
|
|
Bolt | 15
|
|
Cam | 25
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
Note that the <acronym>SQL</acronym> SELECT corresponds to the
|
|
"projection" in relational algebra not to the "selection"
|
|
(see <xref linkend="rel-alg" endterm="rel-alg"> for more details).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The qualifications in the WHERE clause can also be logically connected
|
|
using the keywords OR, AND, and NOT:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT PNAME, PRICE
|
|
FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PNAME = 'Bolt' AND
|
|
(PRICE = 0 OR PRICE < 15);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
will lead to the result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
PNAME | PRICE
|
|
--------+--------
|
|
Bolt | 15
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Arithmetic operations may be used in the target list and in the WHERE
|
|
clause. For example if we want to know how much it would cost if we
|
|
take two pieces of a part we could use the following query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT PNAME, PRICE * 2 AS DOUBLE
|
|
FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PRICE * 2 < 50;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and we get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
PNAME | DOUBLE
|
|
--------+---------
|
|
Screw | 20
|
|
Nut | 16
|
|
Bolt | 30
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
Note that the word DOUBLE after the keyword AS is the new title of the
|
|
second column. This technique can be used for every element of the
|
|
target list to assign a new title to the resulting
|
|
column. This new title
|
|
is often referred to as alias. The alias cannot be used throughout the
|
|
rest of the query.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Joins</title>
|
|
|
|
<para id="simple-join">
|
|
The following example shows how <firstterm>joins</firstterm> are
|
|
realized in <acronym>SQL</acronym>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To join the three tables SUPPLIER, PART and SELLS over their common
|
|
attributes we formulate the following statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNAME, P.PNAME
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S, PART P, SELLS SE
|
|
WHERE S.SNO = SE.SNO AND
|
|
P.PNO = SE.PNO;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and get the following table as a result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNAME | PNAME
|
|
-------+-------
|
|
Smith | Screw
|
|
Smith | Nut
|
|
Jones | Cam
|
|
Adams | Screw
|
|
Adams | Bolt
|
|
Blake | Nut
|
|
Blake | Bolt
|
|
Blake | Cam
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In the FROM clause we introduced an alias name for every relation
|
|
because there are common named attributes (SNO and PNO) among the
|
|
relations. Now we can distinguish between the common named attributes
|
|
by simply prefixing the attribute name with the alias name followed by
|
|
a dot. The join is calculated in the same way as shown in
|
|
<xref linkend="join-example" endterm="join-example">.
|
|
First the Cartesian product
|
|
|
|
SUPPLIER × PART × SELLS
|
|
|
|
is derived. Now only those tuples satisfying the
|
|
conditions given in the WHERE clause are selected (i.e. the common
|
|
named attributes have to be equal). Finally we project out all
|
|
columns but S.SNAME and P.PNAME.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title id="aggregates-tutorial">Aggregate Operators</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym> provides aggregate operators
|
|
(e.g. AVG, COUNT, SUM, MIN, MAX) that
|
|
take the name of an attribute as an argument. The value of the
|
|
aggregate operator is calculated over all values of the specified
|
|
attribute (column) of the whole table. If groups are specified in the
|
|
query the calculation is done only over the values of a group (see next
|
|
section).
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="aggregates-example">Aggregates</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to know the average cost of all parts in table PART we use
|
|
the following query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT AVG(PRICE) AS AVG_PRICE
|
|
FROM PART;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The result is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
AVG_PRICE
|
|
-----------
|
|
14.5
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to know how many parts are stored in table PART we use
|
|
the statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT COUNT(PNO)
|
|
FROM PART;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
COUNT
|
|
-------
|
|
4
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Aggregation by Groups</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym> allows one to partition the tuples of a table
|
|
into groups. Then the
|
|
aggregate operators described above can be applied to the groups
|
|
(i.e. the value of the aggregate operator is no longer calculated over
|
|
all the values of the specified column but over all values of a
|
|
group. Thus the aggregate operator is evaluated individually for every
|
|
group.)
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The partitioning of the tuples into groups is done by using the
|
|
keywords <command>GROUP BY</command> followed by a list of
|
|
attributes that define the
|
|
groups. If we have
|
|
<command>GROUP BY A<subscript>1</subscript>, ⃛, A<subscript>k</subscript></command>
|
|
we partition
|
|
the relation into groups, such that two tuples are in the same group
|
|
if and only if they agree on all the attributes
|
|
A<subscript>1</subscript>, ⃛, A<subscript>k</subscript>.
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="aggregates-groupby">Aggregates</title>
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to know how many parts are sold by every supplier we
|
|
formulate the query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, COUNT(SE.PNO)
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S, SELLS SE
|
|
WHERE S.SNO = SE.SNO
|
|
GROUP BY S.SNO, S.SNAME;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNO | SNAME | COUNT
|
|
-----+-------+-------
|
|
1 | Smith | 2
|
|
2 | Jones | 1
|
|
3 | Adams | 2
|
|
4 | Blake | 3
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Now let's have a look of what is happening here.
|
|
First the join of the
|
|
tables SUPPLIER and SELLS is derived:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
S.SNO | S.SNAME | SE.PNO
|
|
-------+---------+--------
|
|
1 | Smith | 1
|
|
1 | Smith | 2
|
|
2 | Jones | 4
|
|
3 | Adams | 1
|
|
3 | Adams | 3
|
|
4 | Blake | 2
|
|
4 | Blake | 3
|
|
4 | Blake | 4
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Next we partition the tuples into groups by putting all tuples
|
|
together that agree on both attributes S.SNO and S.SNAME:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
S.SNO | S.SNAME | SE.PNO
|
|
-------+---------+--------
|
|
1 | Smith | 1
|
|
| 2
|
|
--------------------------
|
|
2 | Jones | 4
|
|
--------------------------
|
|
3 | Adams | 1
|
|
| 3
|
|
--------------------------
|
|
4 | Blake | 2
|
|
| 3
|
|
| 4
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In our example we got four groups and now we can apply the aggregate
|
|
operator COUNT to every group leading to the total result of the query
|
|
given above.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Note that for the result of a query using GROUP BY and aggregate
|
|
operators to make sense the attributes grouped by must also appear in
|
|
the target list. All further attributes not appearing in the GROUP
|
|
BY clause can only be selected by using an aggregate function. On
|
|
the other hand you can not use aggregate functions on attributes
|
|
appearing in the GROUP BY clause.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Having</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The HAVING clause works much like the WHERE clause and is used to
|
|
consider only those groups satisfying the qualification given in the
|
|
HAVING clause. The expressions allowed in the HAVING clause must
|
|
involve aggregate functions. Every expression using only plain
|
|
attributes belongs to the WHERE clause. On the other hand every
|
|
expression involving an aggregate function must be put to the HAVING
|
|
clause.
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="having-example">Having</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want only those suppliers selling more than one part we use the
|
|
query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, COUNT(SE.PNO)
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S, SELLS SE
|
|
WHERE S.SNO = SE.SNO
|
|
GROUP BY S.SNO, S.SNAME
|
|
HAVING COUNT(SE.PNO) > 1;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
and get:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNO | SNAME | COUNT
|
|
-----+-------+-------
|
|
1 | Smith | 2
|
|
3 | Adams | 2
|
|
4 | Blake | 3
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Subqueries</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In the WHERE and HAVING clauses the use of subqueries (subselects) is
|
|
allowed in every place where a value is expected. In this case the
|
|
value must be derived by evaluating the subquery first. The usage of
|
|
subqueries extends the expressive power of
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym>.
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="subselect-example">Subselect</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to know all parts having a greater price than the part
|
|
named 'Screw' we use the query:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT *
|
|
FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PRICE > (SELECT PRICE FROM PART
|
|
WHERE PNAME='Screw');
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The result is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
PNO | PNAME | PRICE
|
|
-----+---------+--------
|
|
3 | Bolt | 15
|
|
4 | Cam | 25
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
When we look at the above query we can see
|
|
the keyword SELECT two times. The first one at the beginning of the
|
|
query - we will refer to it as outer SELECT - and the one in the WHERE
|
|
clause which begins a nested query - we will refer to it as inner
|
|
SELECT. For every tuple of the outer SELECT the inner SELECT has to be
|
|
evaluated. After every evaluation we know the price of the tuple named
|
|
'Screw' and we can check if the price of the actual tuple is
|
|
greater.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
If we want to know all suppliers that do not sell any part
|
|
(e.g. to be able to remove these suppliers from the database) we use:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT *
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE NOT EXISTS
|
|
(SELECT * FROM SELLS SE
|
|
WHERE SE.SNO = S.SNO);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In our example the result will be empty because every supplier sells
|
|
at least one part. Note that we use S.SNO from the outer SELECT within
|
|
the WHERE clause of the inner SELECT. As described above the subquery
|
|
is evaluated for every tuple from the outer query i.e. the value for
|
|
S.SNO is always taken from the actual tuple of the outer SELECT.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Union, Intersect, Except</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
These operations calculate the union, intersect and set theoretic
|
|
difference of the tuples derived by two subqueries.
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="union-example">Union, Intersect, Except</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The following query is an example for UNION:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNAME = 'Jones'
|
|
UNION
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNAME = 'Adams';
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
gives the result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNO | SNAME | CITY
|
|
-----+-------+--------
|
|
2 | Jones | Paris
|
|
3 | Adams | Vienna
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Here an example for INTERSECT:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNO > 1
|
|
INTERSECT
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNO > 2;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
gives the result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNO | SNAME | CITY
|
|
-----+-------+--------
|
|
2 | Jones | Paris
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
The only tuple returned by both parts of the query is the one having $SNO=2$.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Finally an example for EXCEPT:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNO > 1
|
|
EXCEPT
|
|
SELECT S.SNO, S.SNAME, S.CITY
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S
|
|
WHERE S.SNO > 3;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
gives the result:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNO | SNAME | CITY
|
|
-----+-------+--------
|
|
2 | Jones | Paris
|
|
3 | Adams | Vienna
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2 id="datadef">
|
|
<title>Data Definition</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
There is a set of commands used for data definition included in the
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym> language.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<sect3 id="create">
|
|
<title id="create-title">Create Table</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The most fundamental command for data definition is the
|
|
one that creates a new relation (a new table). The syntax of the
|
|
CREATE TABLE command is:
|
|
|
|
<synopsis>
|
|
CREATE TABLE <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable>
|
|
(<replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_1</replaceable> <replaceable class="parameter">type_of_attr_1</replaceable>
|
|
[, <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_2</replaceable> <replaceable class="parameter">type_of_attr_2</replaceable>
|
|
[, ...]]);
|
|
</synopsis>
|
|
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="table-create">Table Creation</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To create the tables defined in
|
|
<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig"> the
|
|
following <acronym>SQL</acronym> statements are used:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE TABLE SUPPLIER
|
|
(SNO INTEGER,
|
|
SNAME VARCHAR(20),
|
|
CITY VARCHAR(20));
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE TABLE PART
|
|
(PNO INTEGER,
|
|
PNAME VARCHAR(20),
|
|
PRICE DECIMAL(4 , 2));
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE TABLE SELLS
|
|
(SNO INTEGER,
|
|
PNO INTEGER);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Data Types in <acronym>SQL</acronym></title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The following is a list of some data types that are supported by
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym>:
|
|
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
INTEGER: signed fullword binary integer (31 bits precision).
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
SMALLINT: signed halfword binary integer (15 bits precision).
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
DECIMAL (<replaceable class="parameter">p</replaceable>[,<replaceable class="parameter">q</replaceable>]):
|
|
signed packed decimal number of
|
|
<replaceable class="parameter">p</replaceable>
|
|
digits precision with assumed
|
|
<replaceable class="parameter">q</replaceable>
|
|
of them right to the decimal point.
|
|
|
|
(15 ≥ <replaceable class="parameter">p</replaceable> ≥ <replaceable class="parameter">q</replaceable> ≥ 0).
|
|
|
|
If <replaceable class="parameter">q</replaceable>
|
|
is omitted it is assumed to be 0.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
FLOAT: signed doubleword floating point number.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
CHAR(<replaceable class="parameter">n</replaceable>):
|
|
fixed length character string of length
|
|
<replaceable class="parameter">n</replaceable>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
VARCHAR(<replaceable class="parameter">n</replaceable>):
|
|
varying length character string of maximum length
|
|
<replaceable class="parameter">n</replaceable>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Create Index</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Indices are used to speed up access to a relation. If a relation <classname>R</classname>
|
|
has an index on attribute <classname>A</classname> then we can
|
|
retrieve all tuples <replaceable>t</replaceable>
|
|
having
|
|
<replaceable>t</replaceable>(<classname>A</classname>) = <replaceable>a</replaceable>
|
|
in time roughly proportional to the number of such
|
|
tuples <replaceable>t</replaceable>
|
|
rather than in time proportional to the size of <classname>R</classname>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To create an index in <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
the CREATE INDEX command is used. The syntax is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE INDEX <replaceable class="parameter">index_name</replaceable>
|
|
ON <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable> ( <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attribute</replaceable> );
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
<example>
|
|
<title id="index-create">Create Index</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To create an index named I on attribute SNAME of relation SUPPLIER
|
|
we use the following statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE INDEX I ON SUPPLIER (SNAME);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The created index is maintained automatically, i.e. whenever a new tuple
|
|
is inserted into the relation SUPPLIER the index I is adapted. Note
|
|
that the only changes a user can percept when an index is present
|
|
are an increased speed.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</example>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Create View</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
A view may be regarded as a <firstterm>virtual table</firstterm>,
|
|
i.e. a table that
|
|
does not <emphasis>physically</emphasis> exist in the database
|
|
but looks to the user
|
|
as if it does. By contrast, when we talk of a
|
|
<firstterm>base table</firstterm> there is
|
|
really a physically stored counterpart of each row of the table
|
|
somewhere in the physical storage.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Views do not have their own, physically separate, distinguishable
|
|
stored data. Instead, the system stores the definition of the
|
|
view (i.e. the rules about how to access physically stored base
|
|
tables in order to materialize the view) somewhere in the system
|
|
catalogs (see
|
|
<xref linkend="catalogs-title" endterm="catalogs-title">). For a
|
|
discussion on different techniques to implement views refer to
|
|
<!--
|
|
section
|
|
<xref linkend="view-impl" endterm="view-impl">.
|
|
-->
|
|
<citetitle>SIM98</citetitle>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In <acronym>SQL</acronym> the <command>CREATE VIEW</command>
|
|
command is used to define a view. The syntax
|
|
is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE VIEW <replaceable class="parameter">view_name</replaceable>
|
|
AS <replaceable class="parameter">select_stmt</replaceable>
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
where <replaceable class="parameter">select_stmt</replaceable>
|
|
is a valid select statement as defined
|
|
in <xref linkend="select-title" endterm="select-title">.
|
|
Note that <replaceable class="parameter">select_stmt</replaceable> is
|
|
not executed when the view is created. It is just stored in the
|
|
<firstterm>system catalogs</firstterm>
|
|
and is executed whenever a query against the view is made.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Let the following view definition be given (we use
|
|
the tables from
|
|
<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig"> again):
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
CREATE VIEW London_Suppliers
|
|
AS SELECT S.SNAME, P.PNAME
|
|
FROM SUPPLIER S, PART P, SELLS SE
|
|
WHERE S.SNO = SE.SNO AND
|
|
P.PNO = SE.PNO AND
|
|
S.CITY = 'London';
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Now we can use this <firstterm>virtual relation</firstterm>
|
|
<classname>London_Suppliers</classname> as
|
|
if it were another base table:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SELECT * FROM London_Suppliers
|
|
WHERE P.PNAME = 'Screw';
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
|
|
which will return the following table:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
SNAME | PNAME
|
|
-------+-------
|
|
Smith | Screw
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To calculate this result the database system has to do a
|
|
<emphasis>hidden</emphasis>
|
|
access to the base tables SUPPLIER, SELLS and PART first. It
|
|
does so by executing the query given in the view definition against
|
|
those base tables. After that the additional qualifications
|
|
(given in the
|
|
query against the view) can be applied to obtain the resulting
|
|
table.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Drop Table, Drop Index, Drop View</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To destroy a table (including all tuples stored in that table) the
|
|
DROP TABLE command is used:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DROP TABLE <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable>;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To destroy the SUPPLIER table use the following statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DROP TABLE SUPPLIER;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The DROP INDEX command is used to destroy an index:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DROP INDEX <replaceable class="parameter">index_name</replaceable>;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Finally to destroy a given view use the command DROP VIEW:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DROP VIEW <replaceable class="parameter">view_name</replaceable>;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Data Manipulation</title>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Insert Into</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
Once a table is created (see
|
|
<xref linkend="create-title" endterm="create-title">), it can be filled
|
|
with tuples using the command <command>INSERT INTO</command>.
|
|
The syntax is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
INSERT INTO <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable> (<replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_1</replaceable>
|
|
[, <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_2</replaceable> [,...]])
|
|
VALUES (<replaceable class="parameter">val_attr_1</replaceable> [, <replaceable class="parameter">val_attr_2</replaceable> [, ...]]);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To insert the first tuple into the relation SUPPLIER (from
|
|
<xref linkend="supplier-fig" endterm="supplier-fig">) we use the
|
|
following statement:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
INSERT INTO SUPPLIER (SNO, SNAME, CITY)
|
|
VALUES (1, 'Smith', 'London');
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To insert the first tuple into the relation SELLS we use:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
INSERT INTO SELLS (SNO, PNO)
|
|
VALUES (1, 1);
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Update</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To change one or more attribute values of tuples in a relation the
|
|
UPDATE command is used. The syntax is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
UPDATE <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable>
|
|
SET <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_1</replaceable> = <replaceable class="parameter">value_1</replaceable>
|
|
[, ... [, <replaceable class="parameter">name_of_attr_k</replaceable> = <replaceable class="parameter">value_k</replaceable>]]
|
|
WHERE <replaceable class="parameter">condition</replaceable>;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To change the value of attribute PRICE of the part 'Screw' in the
|
|
relation PART we use:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
UPDATE PART
|
|
SET PRICE = 15
|
|
WHERE PNAME = 'Screw';
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
The new value of attribute PRICE of the tuple whose name is 'Screw' is
|
|
now 15.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
|
|
<sect3>
|
|
<title>Delete</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To delete a tuple from a particular table use the command DELETE
|
|
FROM. The syntax is:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DELETE FROM <replaceable class="parameter">table_name</replaceable>
|
|
WHERE <replaceable class="parameter">condition</replaceable>;
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
To delete the supplier called 'Smith' of the table SUPPLIER the
|
|
following statement is used:
|
|
|
|
<programlisting>
|
|
DELETE FROM SUPPLIER
|
|
WHERE SNAME = 'Smith';
|
|
</programlisting>
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect3>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2 id="catalogs">
|
|
<title id="catalogs-title">System Catalogs</title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In every <acronym>SQL</acronym> database system
|
|
<firstterm>system catalogs</firstterm> are used to keep
|
|
track of which tables, views indexes etc. are defined in the
|
|
database. These system catalogs can be queried as if they were normal
|
|
relations. For example there is one catalog used for the definition of
|
|
views. This catalog stores the query from the view definition. Whenever
|
|
a query against a view is made, the system first gets the
|
|
<firstterm>view definition query</firstterm> out of the catalog
|
|
and materializes the view
|
|
before proceeding with the user query (see
|
|
<!--
|
|
section
|
|
<xref linkend="view-impl" endterm="view-impl">.
|
|
<citetitle>SIM98</citetitle>
|
|
-->
|
|
<xref linkend="SIM98" endterm="SIM98">
|
|
for a more detailed
|
|
description). For more information about system catalogs refer to
|
|
<xref linkend="DATE94" endterm="DATE94">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
|
|
<sect2>
|
|
<title>Embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym></title>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
In this section we will sketch how <acronym>SQL</acronym> can be
|
|
embedded into a host language (e.g. <literal>C</literal>).
|
|
There are two main reasons why we want to use <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
from a host language:
|
|
|
|
<itemizedlist>
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
There are queries that cannot be formulated using pure <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
(i.e. recursive queries). To be able to perform such queries we need a
|
|
host language with a greater expressive power than
|
|
<acronym>SQL</acronym>.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
|
|
<listitem>
|
|
<para>
|
|
We simply want to access a database from some application that
|
|
is written in the host language (e.g. a ticket reservation system
|
|
with a graphical user interface is written in C and the information
|
|
about which tickets are still left is stored in a database that can be
|
|
accessed using embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym>).
|
|
</para>
|
|
</listitem>
|
|
</itemizedlist>
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
A program using embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
in a host language consists of statements
|
|
of the host language and of
|
|
<firstterm>embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym></firstterm>
|
|
(<acronym>ESQL</acronym>) statements. Every <acronym>ESQL</acronym>
|
|
statement begins with the keywords <command>EXEC SQL</command>.
|
|
The <acronym>ESQL</acronym> statements are
|
|
transformed to statements of the host language
|
|
by a <firstterm>precompiler</firstterm>
|
|
(which usually inserts
|
|
calls to library routines that perform the various <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
commands).
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
When we look at the examples throughout
|
|
<xref linkend="select-title" endterm="select-title"> we
|
|
realize that the result of the queries is very often a set of
|
|
tuples. Most host languages are not designed to operate on sets so we
|
|
need a mechanism to access every single tuple of the set of tuples
|
|
returned by a SELECT statement. This mechanism can be provided by
|
|
declaring a <firstterm>cursor</firstterm>.
|
|
After that we can use the FETCH command to
|
|
retrieve a tuple and set the cursor to the next tuple.
|
|
</para>
|
|
|
|
<para>
|
|
For a detailed discussion on embedded <acronym>SQL</acronym>
|
|
refer to
|
|
<xref linkend="DATE97" endterm="DATE97">,
|
|
<xref linkend="DATE94" endterm="DATE94">,
|
|
or
|
|
<xref linkend="ULL88" endterm="ULL88">.
|
|
</para>
|
|
</sect2>
|
|
</sect1>
|
|
</chapter>
|
|
|
|
<!-- Keep this comment at the end of the file
|
|
Local variables:
|
|
mode:sgml
|
|
sgml-omittag:nil
|
|
sgml-shorttag:t
|
|
sgml-minimize-attributes:nil
|
|
sgml-always-quote-attributes:t
|
|
sgml-indent-step:1
|
|
sgml-indent-data:t
|
|
sgml-parent-document:nil
|
|
sgml-default-dtd-file:"./reference.ced"
|
|
sgml-exposed-tags:nil
|
|
sgml-local-catalogs:("/usr/lib/sgml/catalog")
|
|
sgml-local-ecat-files:nil
|
|
End:
|
|
-->
|