postgresql/src/backend/storage/buffer/bufmgr.c

/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 *
 * bufmgr.c
 *	  buffer manager interface routines
 *
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2024, PostgreSQL Global Development Group
 * Portions Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California
 *
 *
 * IDENTIFICATION
 *	  src/backend/storage/buffer/bufmgr.c
 *
 *-------------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
/*
 * Principal entry points:
 *
 * ReadBuffer() -- find or create a buffer holding the requested page,
 *		and pin it so that no one can destroy it while this process
 *		is using it.
 *
 * StartReadBuffer() -- as above, with separate wait step
 * StartReadBuffers() -- multiple block version
 * WaitReadBuffers() -- second step of above
 *
 * ReleaseBuffer() -- unpin a buffer
 *
 * MarkBufferDirty() -- mark a pinned buffer's contents as "dirty".
 *		The disk write is delayed until buffer replacement or checkpoint.
 *
 * See also these files:
 *		freelist.c -- chooses victim for buffer replacement
 *		buf_table.c -- manages the buffer lookup table
 */
#include "postgres.h"

#include <sys/file.h>
#include <unistd.h>

#include "access/tableam.h"
#include "access/xloginsert.h"
#include "access/xlogutils.h"
#include "catalog/storage.h"
#include "catalog/storage_xlog.h"
#include "executor/instrument.h"
#include "lib/binaryheap.h"
#include "miscadmin.h"
#include "pg_trace.h"
#include "pgstat.h"
#include "postmaster/bgwriter.h"
#include "storage/buf_internals.h"
#include "storage/bufmgr.h"
#include "storage/fd.h"
#include "storage/ipc.h"
#include "storage/lmgr.h"
#include "storage/proc.h"
#include "storage/smgr.h"
#include "storage/standby.h"
#include "utils/memdebug.h"
#include "utils/ps_status.h"
#include "utils/rel.h"
#include "utils/resowner.h"
#include "utils/timestamp.h"


/* Note: these two macros only work on shared buffers, not local ones! */
#define BufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr)	((Block) (BufferBlocks + ((Size) (bufHdr)->buf_id) * BLCKSZ))
#define BufferGetLSN(bufHdr)	(PageGetLSN(BufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr)))

/* Note: this macro only works on local buffers, not shared ones! */
#define LocalBufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr) \
	LocalBufferBlockPointers[-((bufHdr)->buf_id + 2)]

/* Bits in SyncOneBuffer's return value */
#define BUF_WRITTEN				0x01
#define BUF_REUSABLE			0x02

#define RELS_BSEARCH_THRESHOLD		20

/*
 * This is the size (in the number of blocks) above which we scan the
 * entire buffer pool to remove the buffers for all the pages of relation
 * being dropped. For the relations with size below this threshold, we find
 * the buffers by doing lookups in BufMapping table.
 */
#define BUF_DROP_FULL_SCAN_THRESHOLD		(uint64) (NBuffers / 32)

typedef struct PrivateRefCountEntry
{
	Buffer		buffer;
	int32		refcount;
} PrivateRefCountEntry;

/* 64 bytes, about the size of a cache line on common systems */
#define REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES 8

/*
 * Status of buffers to checkpoint for a particular tablespace, used
 * internally in BufferSync.
 */
typedef struct CkptTsStatus
{
	/* oid of the tablespace */
	Oid			tsId;

	/*
	 * Checkpoint progress for this tablespace. To make progress comparable
	 * between tablespaces the progress is, for each tablespace, measured as a
	 * number between 0 and the total number of to-be-checkpointed pages. Each
	 * page checkpointed in this tablespace increments this space's progress
	 * by progress_slice.
	 */
	float8		progress;
	float8		progress_slice;

	/* number of to-be checkpointed pages in this tablespace */
	int			num_to_scan;
	/* already processed pages in this tablespace */
	int			num_scanned;

	/* current offset in CkptBufferIds for this tablespace */
	int			index;
} CkptTsStatus;

/*
 * Type for array used to sort SMgrRelations
 *
 * FlushRelationsAllBuffers shares the same comparator function with
 * DropRelationsAllBuffers. Pointer to this struct and RelFileLocator must be
 * compatible.
 */
typedef struct SMgrSortArray
{
	RelFileLocator rlocator;	/* This must be the first member */
	SMgrRelation srel;
} SMgrSortArray;

/* GUC variables */
bool		zero_damaged_pages = false;
int			bgwriter_lru_maxpages = 100;
double		bgwriter_lru_multiplier = 2.0;
bool		track_io_timing = false;

/*
 * How many buffers PrefetchBuffer callers should try to stay ahead of their
 * ReadBuffer calls by.  Zero means "never prefetch".  This value is only used
 * for buffers not belonging to tablespaces that have their
 * effective_io_concurrency parameter set.
 */
int			effective_io_concurrency = DEFAULT_EFFECTIVE_IO_CONCURRENCY;

/*
 * Like effective_io_concurrency, but used by maintenance code paths that might
 * benefit from a higher setting because they work on behalf of many sessions.
 * Overridden by the tablespace setting of the same name.
 */
int			maintenance_io_concurrency = DEFAULT_MAINTENANCE_IO_CONCURRENCY;

/*
 * Limit on how many blocks should be handled in single I/O operations.
 * StartReadBuffers() callers should respect it, as should other operations
 * that call smgr APIs directly.
 */
int			io_combine_limit = DEFAULT_IO_COMBINE_LIMIT;

/*
 * GUC variables about triggering kernel writeback for buffers written; OS
 * dependent defaults are set via the GUC mechanism.
 */
int			checkpoint_flush_after = DEFAULT_CHECKPOINT_FLUSH_AFTER;
int			bgwriter_flush_after = DEFAULT_BGWRITER_FLUSH_AFTER;
int			backend_flush_after = DEFAULT_BACKEND_FLUSH_AFTER;

/* local state for LockBufferForCleanup */
static BufferDesc *PinCountWaitBuf = NULL;

/*
 * Backend-Private refcount management:
 *
 * Each buffer also has a private refcount that keeps track of the number of
 * times the buffer is pinned in the current process.  This is so that the
 * shared refcount needs to be modified only once if a buffer is pinned more
 * than once by an individual backend.  It's also used to check that no buffers
 * are still pinned at the end of transactions and when exiting.
 *
 *
 * To avoid - as we used to - requiring an array with NBuffers entries to keep
 * track of local buffers, we use a small sequentially searched array
 * (PrivateRefCountArray) and an overflow hash table (PrivateRefCountHash) to
 * keep track of backend local pins.
 *
 * Until no more than REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES buffers are pinned at once, all
 * refcounts are kept track of in the array; after that, new array entries
 * displace old ones into the hash table. That way a frequently used entry
 * can't get "stuck" in the hashtable while infrequent ones clog the array.
 *
 * Note that in most scenarios the number of pinned buffers will not exceed
 * REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES.
 *
 *
 * To enter a buffer into the refcount tracking mechanism first reserve a free
 * entry using ReservePrivateRefCountEntry() and then later, if necessary,
 * fill it with NewPrivateRefCountEntry(). That split lets us avoid doing
 * memory allocations in NewPrivateRefCountEntry() which can be important
 * because in some scenarios it's called with a spinlock held...
 */
static struct PrivateRefCountEntry PrivateRefCountArray[REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES];
static HTAB *PrivateRefCountHash = NULL;
static int32 PrivateRefCountOverflowed = 0;
static uint32 PrivateRefCountClock = 0;
static PrivateRefCountEntry *ReservedRefCountEntry = NULL;

static void ReservePrivateRefCountEntry(void);
static PrivateRefCountEntry *NewPrivateRefCountEntry(Buffer buffer);
static PrivateRefCountEntry *GetPrivateRefCountEntry(Buffer buffer, bool do_move);
static inline int32 GetPrivateRefCount(Buffer buffer);
static void ForgetPrivateRefCountEntry(PrivateRefCountEntry *ref);

/* ResourceOwner callbacks to hold in-progress I/Os and buffer pins */
static void ResOwnerReleaseBufferIO(Datum res);
static char *ResOwnerPrintBufferIO(Datum res);
static void ResOwnerReleaseBufferPin(Datum res);
static char *ResOwnerPrintBufferPin(Datum res);

const ResourceOwnerDesc buffer_io_resowner_desc =
{
	.name = "buffer io",
	.release_phase = RESOURCE_RELEASE_BEFORE_LOCKS,
	.release_priority = RELEASE_PRIO_BUFFER_IOS,
	.ReleaseResource = ResOwnerReleaseBufferIO,
	.DebugPrint = ResOwnerPrintBufferIO
};

const ResourceOwnerDesc buffer_pin_resowner_desc =
{
	.name = "buffer pin",
	.release_phase = RESOURCE_RELEASE_BEFORE_LOCKS,
	.release_priority = RELEASE_PRIO_BUFFER_PINS,
	.ReleaseResource = ResOwnerReleaseBufferPin,
	.DebugPrint = ResOwnerPrintBufferPin
};

/*
 * Ensure that the PrivateRefCountArray has sufficient space to store one more
 * entry. This has to be called before using NewPrivateRefCountEntry() to fill
 * a new entry - but it's perfectly fine to not use a reserved entry.
 */
static void
ReservePrivateRefCountEntry(void)
{
	/* Already reserved (or freed), nothing to do */
	if (ReservedRefCountEntry != NULL)
		return;

	/*
	 * First search for a free entry the array, that'll be sufficient in the
	 * majority of cases.
	 */
	{
		int			i;

		for (i = 0; i < REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES; i++)
		{
			PrivateRefCountEntry *res;

			res = &PrivateRefCountArray[i];

			if (res->buffer == InvalidBuffer)
			{
				ReservedRefCountEntry = res;
				return;
			}
		}
	}

	/*
	 * No luck. All array entries are full. Move one array entry into the hash
	 * table.
	 */
	{
		/*
		 * Move entry from the current clock position in the array into the
		 * hashtable. Use that slot.
		 */
		PrivateRefCountEntry *hashent;
		bool		found;

		/* select victim slot */
		ReservedRefCountEntry =
			&PrivateRefCountArray[PrivateRefCountClock++ % REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES];

		/* Better be used, otherwise we shouldn't get here. */
		Assert(ReservedRefCountEntry->buffer != InvalidBuffer);

		/* enter victim array entry into hashtable */
		hashent = hash_search(PrivateRefCountHash,
							  &(ReservedRefCountEntry->buffer),
							  HASH_ENTER,
							  &found);
		Assert(!found);
		hashent->refcount = ReservedRefCountEntry->refcount;

		/* clear the now free array slot */
		ReservedRefCountEntry->buffer = InvalidBuffer;
		ReservedRefCountEntry->refcount = 0;

		PrivateRefCountOverflowed++;
	}
}

/*
 * Fill a previously reserved refcount entry.
 */
static PrivateRefCountEntry *
NewPrivateRefCountEntry(Buffer buffer)
{
	PrivateRefCountEntry *res;

	/* only allowed to be called when a reservation has been made */
	Assert(ReservedRefCountEntry != NULL);

	/* use up the reserved entry */
	res = ReservedRefCountEntry;
	ReservedRefCountEntry = NULL;

	/* and fill it */
	res->buffer = buffer;
	res->refcount = 0;

	return res;
}

/*
 * Return the PrivateRefCount entry for the passed buffer.
 *
 * Returns NULL if a buffer doesn't have a refcount entry. Otherwise, if
 * do_move is true, and the entry resides in the hashtable the entry is
 * optimized for frequent access by moving it to the array.
 */
static PrivateRefCountEntry *
GetPrivateRefCountEntry(Buffer buffer, bool do_move)
{
	PrivateRefCountEntry *res;
	int			i;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));
	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(buffer));

	/*
	 * First search for references in the array, that'll be sufficient in the
	 * majority of cases.
	 */
	for (i = 0; i < REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES; i++)
	{
		res = &PrivateRefCountArray[i];

		if (res->buffer == buffer)
			return res;
	}

	/*
	 * By here we know that the buffer, if already pinned, isn't residing in
	 * the array.
	 *
	 * Only look up the buffer in the hashtable if we've previously overflowed
	 * into it.
	 */
	if (PrivateRefCountOverflowed == 0)
		return NULL;

	res = hash_search(PrivateRefCountHash, &buffer, HASH_FIND, NULL);

	if (res == NULL)
		return NULL;
	else if (!do_move)
	{
		/* caller doesn't want us to move the hash entry into the array */
		return res;
	}
	else
	{
		/* move buffer from hashtable into the free array slot */
		bool		found;
		PrivateRefCountEntry *free;

		/* Ensure there's a free array slot */
		ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();

		/* Use up the reserved slot */
		Assert(ReservedRefCountEntry != NULL);
		free = ReservedRefCountEntry;
		ReservedRefCountEntry = NULL;
		Assert(free->buffer == InvalidBuffer);

		/* and fill it */
		free->buffer = buffer;
		free->refcount = res->refcount;

		/* delete from hashtable */
		hash_search(PrivateRefCountHash, &buffer, HASH_REMOVE, &found);
		Assert(found);
		Assert(PrivateRefCountOverflowed > 0);
		PrivateRefCountOverflowed--;

		return free;
	}
}

/*
 * Returns how many times the passed buffer is pinned by this backend.
 *
 * Only works for shared memory buffers!
 */
static inline int32
GetPrivateRefCount(Buffer buffer)
{
	PrivateRefCountEntry *ref;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));
	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(buffer));

	/*
	 * Not moving the entry - that's ok for the current users, but we might
	 * want to change this one day.
	 */
	ref = GetPrivateRefCountEntry(buffer, false);

	if (ref == NULL)
		return 0;
	return ref->refcount;
}

/*
 * Release resources used to track the reference count of a buffer which we no
 * longer have pinned and don't want to pin again immediately.
 */
static void
ForgetPrivateRefCountEntry(PrivateRefCountEntry *ref)
{
	Assert(ref->refcount == 0);

	if (ref >= &PrivateRefCountArray[0] &&
		ref < &PrivateRefCountArray[REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES])
	{
		ref->buffer = InvalidBuffer;

		/*
		 * Mark the just used entry as reserved - in many scenarios that
		 * allows us to avoid ever having to search the array/hash for free
		 * entries.
		 */
		ReservedRefCountEntry = ref;
	}
	else
	{
		bool		found;
		Buffer		buffer = ref->buffer;

		hash_search(PrivateRefCountHash, &buffer, HASH_REMOVE, &found);
		Assert(found);
		Assert(PrivateRefCountOverflowed > 0);
		PrivateRefCountOverflowed--;
	}
}

/*
 * BufferIsPinned
 *		True iff the buffer is pinned (also checks for valid buffer number).
 *
 *		NOTE: what we check here is that *this* backend holds a pin on
 *		the buffer.  We do not care whether some other backend does.
 */
#define BufferIsPinned(bufnum) \
( \
	!BufferIsValid(bufnum) ? \
		false \
	: \
		BufferIsLocal(bufnum) ? \
			(LocalRefCount[-(bufnum) - 1] > 0) \
		: \
	(GetPrivateRefCount(bufnum) > 0) \
)


static Buffer ReadBuffer_common(Relation rel,
								SMgrRelation smgr, char smgr_persistence,
								ForkNumber forkNum, BlockNumber blockNum,
								ReadBufferMode mode, BufferAccessStrategy strategy);
static BlockNumber ExtendBufferedRelCommon(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
										   ForkNumber fork,
										   BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
										   uint32 flags,
										   uint32 extend_by,
										   BlockNumber extend_upto,
										   Buffer *buffers,
										   uint32 *extended_by);
static BlockNumber ExtendBufferedRelShared(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
										   ForkNumber fork,
										   BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
										   uint32 flags,
										   uint32 extend_by,
										   BlockNumber extend_upto,
										   Buffer *buffers,
										   uint32 *extended_by);
static bool PinBuffer(BufferDesc *buf, BufferAccessStrategy strategy);
static void PinBuffer_Locked(BufferDesc *buf);
static void UnpinBuffer(BufferDesc *buf);
static void UnpinBufferNoOwner(BufferDesc *buf);
static void BufferSync(int flags);
static uint32 WaitBufHdrUnlocked(BufferDesc *buf);
static int	SyncOneBuffer(int buf_id, bool skip_recently_used,
						  WritebackContext *wb_context);
static void WaitIO(BufferDesc *buf);
static bool StartBufferIO(BufferDesc *buf, bool forInput, bool nowait);
static void TerminateBufferIO(BufferDesc *buf, bool clear_dirty,
							  uint32 set_flag_bits, bool forget_owner);
static void AbortBufferIO(Buffer buffer);
static void shared_buffer_write_error_callback(void *arg);
static void local_buffer_write_error_callback(void *arg);
static inline BufferDesc *BufferAlloc(SMgrRelation smgr,
									  char relpersistence,
									  ForkNumber forkNum,
									  BlockNumber blockNum,
									  BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
									  bool *foundPtr, IOContext io_context);
static Buffer GetVictimBuffer(BufferAccessStrategy strategy, IOContext io_context);
static void FlushBuffer(BufferDesc *buf, SMgrRelation reln,
						IOObject io_object, IOContext io_context);
static void FindAndDropRelationBuffers(RelFileLocator rlocator,
									   ForkNumber forkNum,
									   BlockNumber nForkBlock,
									   BlockNumber firstDelBlock);
static void RelationCopyStorageUsingBuffer(RelFileLocator srclocator,
										   RelFileLocator dstlocator,
										   ForkNumber forkNum, bool permanent);
static void AtProcExit_Buffers(int code, Datum arg);
static void CheckForBufferLeaks(void);
static int	rlocator_comparator(const void *p1, const void *p2);
static inline int buffertag_comparator(const BufferTag *ba, const BufferTag *bb);
static inline int ckpt_buforder_comparator(const CkptSortItem *a, const CkptSortItem *b);
static int	ts_ckpt_progress_comparator(Datum a, Datum b, void *arg);


/*
 * Implementation of PrefetchBuffer() for shared buffers.
 */
PrefetchBufferResult
PrefetchSharedBuffer(SMgrRelation smgr_reln,
					 ForkNumber forkNum,
					 BlockNumber blockNum)
{
	PrefetchBufferResult result = {InvalidBuffer, false};
	BufferTag	newTag;			/* identity of requested block */
	uint32		newHash;		/* hash value for newTag */
	LWLock	   *newPartitionLock;	/* buffer partition lock for it */
	int			buf_id;

	Assert(BlockNumberIsValid(blockNum));

	/* create a tag so we can lookup the buffer */
	InitBufferTag(&newTag, &smgr_reln->smgr_rlocator.locator,
				  forkNum, blockNum);

	/* determine its hash code and partition lock ID */
	newHash = BufTableHashCode(&newTag);
	newPartitionLock = BufMappingPartitionLock(newHash);

	/* see if the block is in the buffer pool already */
	LWLockAcquire(newPartitionLock, LW_SHARED);
	buf_id = BufTableLookup(&newTag, newHash);
	LWLockRelease(newPartitionLock);

	/* If not in buffers, initiate prefetch */
	if (buf_id < 0)
	{
#ifdef USE_PREFETCH
		/*
		 * Try to initiate an asynchronous read.  This returns false in
		 * recovery if the relation file doesn't exist.
		 */
		if ((io_direct_flags & IO_DIRECT_DATA) == 0 &&
			smgrprefetch(smgr_reln, forkNum, blockNum, 1))
		{
			result.initiated_io = true;
		}
#endif							/* USE_PREFETCH */
	}
	else
	{
		/*
		 * Report the buffer it was in at that time.  The caller may be able
		 * to avoid a buffer table lookup, but it's not pinned and it must be
		 * rechecked!
		 */
		result.recent_buffer = buf_id + 1;
	}

	/*
	 * If the block *is* in buffers, we do nothing.  This is not really ideal:
	 * the block might be just about to be evicted, which would be stupid
	 * since we know we are going to need it soon.  But the only easy answer
	 * is to bump the usage_count, which does not seem like a great solution:
	 * when the caller does ultimately touch the block, usage_count would get
	 * bumped again, resulting in too much favoritism for blocks that are
	 * involved in a prefetch sequence. A real fix would involve some
	 * additional per-buffer state, and it's not clear that there's enough of
	 * a problem to justify that.
	 */

	return result;
}

/*
 * PrefetchBuffer -- initiate asynchronous read of a block of a relation
 *
 * This is named by analogy to ReadBuffer but doesn't actually allocate a
 * buffer.  Instead it tries to ensure that a future ReadBuffer for the given
 * block will not be delayed by the I/O.  Prefetching is optional.
 *
 * There are three possible outcomes:
 *
 * 1.  If the block is already cached, the result includes a valid buffer that
 * could be used by the caller to avoid the need for a later buffer lookup, but
 * it's not pinned, so the caller must recheck it.
 *
 * 2.  If the kernel has been asked to initiate I/O, the initiated_io member is
 * true.  Currently there is no way to know if the data was already cached by
 * the kernel and therefore didn't really initiate I/O, and no way to know when
 * the I/O completes other than using synchronous ReadBuffer().
 *
 * 3.  Otherwise, the buffer wasn't already cached by PostgreSQL, and
 * USE_PREFETCH is not defined (this build doesn't support prefetching due to
 * lack of a kernel facility), direct I/O is enabled, or the underlying
 * relation file wasn't found and we are in recovery.  (If the relation file
 * wasn't found and we are not in recovery, an error is raised).
 */
PrefetchBufferResult
PrefetchBuffer(Relation reln, ForkNumber forkNum, BlockNumber blockNum)
{
	Assert(RelationIsValid(reln));
	Assert(BlockNumberIsValid(blockNum));

	if (RelationUsesLocalBuffers(reln))
	{
		/* see comments in ReadBufferExtended */
		if (RELATION_IS_OTHER_TEMP(reln))
			ereport(ERROR,
					(errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
					 errmsg("cannot access temporary tables of other sessions")));

		/* pass it off to localbuf.c */
		return PrefetchLocalBuffer(RelationGetSmgr(reln), forkNum, blockNum);
	}
	else
	{
		/* pass it to the shared buffer version */
		return PrefetchSharedBuffer(RelationGetSmgr(reln), forkNum, blockNum);
	}
}

/*
 * ReadRecentBuffer -- try to pin a block in a recently observed buffer
 *
 * Compared to ReadBuffer(), this avoids a buffer mapping lookup when it's
 * successful.  Return true if the buffer is valid and still has the expected
 * tag.  In that case, the buffer is pinned and the usage count is bumped.
 */
bool
ReadRecentBuffer(RelFileLocator rlocator, ForkNumber forkNum, BlockNumber blockNum,
				 Buffer recent_buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	BufferTag	tag;
	uint32		buf_state;
	bool		have_private_ref;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(recent_buffer));

	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
	ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
	InitBufferTag(&tag, &rlocator, forkNum, blockNum);

	if (BufferIsLocal(recent_buffer))
	{
		int			b = -recent_buffer - 1;

		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(b);
		buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state);

		/* Is it still valid and holding the right tag? */
		if ((buf_state & BM_VALID) && BufferTagsEqual(&tag, &bufHdr->tag))
		{
			PinLocalBuffer(bufHdr, true);

			pgBufferUsage.local_blks_hit++;

			return true;
		}
	}
	else
	{
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(recent_buffer - 1);
		have_private_ref = GetPrivateRefCount(recent_buffer) > 0;

		/*
		 * Do we already have this buffer pinned with a private reference?  If
		 * so, it must be valid and it is safe to check the tag without
		 * locking.  If not, we have to lock the header first and then check.
		 */
		if (have_private_ref)
			buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state);
		else
			buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		if ((buf_state & BM_VALID) && BufferTagsEqual(&tag, &bufHdr->tag))
		{
			/*
			 * It's now safe to pin the buffer.  We can't pin first and ask
			 * questions later, because it might confuse code paths like
			 * InvalidateBuffer() if we pinned a random non-matching buffer.
			 */
			if (have_private_ref)
				PinBuffer(bufHdr, NULL);	/* bump pin count */
			else
				PinBuffer_Locked(bufHdr);	/* pin for first time */

			pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_hit++;

			return true;
		}

		/* If we locked the header above, now unlock. */
		if (!have_private_ref)
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}

	return false;
}

/*
 * ReadBuffer -- a shorthand for ReadBufferExtended, for reading from main
 *		fork with RBM_NORMAL mode and default strategy.
 */
Buffer
ReadBuffer(Relation reln, BlockNumber blockNum)
{
	return ReadBufferExtended(reln, MAIN_FORKNUM, blockNum, RBM_NORMAL, NULL);
}

/*
 * ReadBufferExtended -- returns a buffer containing the requested
 *		block of the requested relation.  If the blknum
 *		requested is P_NEW, extend the relation file and
 *		allocate a new block.  (Caller is responsible for
 *		ensuring that only one backend tries to extend a
 *		relation at the same time!)
 *
 * Returns: the buffer number for the buffer containing
 *		the block read.  The returned buffer has been pinned.
 *		Does not return on error --- elog's instead.
 *
 * Assume when this function is called, that reln has been opened already.
 *
 * In RBM_NORMAL mode, the page is read from disk, and the page header is
 * validated.  An error is thrown if the page header is not valid.  (But
 * note that an all-zero page is considered "valid"; see
 * PageIsVerifiedExtended().)
 *
 * RBM_ZERO_ON_ERROR is like the normal mode, but if the page header is not
 * valid, the page is zeroed instead of throwing an error. This is intended
 * for non-critical data, where the caller is prepared to repair errors.
 *
 * In RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK mode, if the page isn't in buffer cache already, it's
 * filled with zeros instead of reading it from disk.  Useful when the caller
 * is going to fill the page from scratch, since this saves I/O and avoids
 * unnecessary failure if the page-on-disk has corrupt page headers.
 * The page is returned locked to ensure that the caller has a chance to
 * initialize the page before it's made visible to others.
 * Caution: do not use this mode to read a page that is beyond the relation's
 * current physical EOF; that is likely to cause problems in md.c when
 * the page is modified and written out. P_NEW is OK, though.
 *
 * RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK is the same as RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK, but acquires
 * a cleanup-strength lock on the page.
 *
 * RBM_NORMAL_NO_LOG mode is treated the same as RBM_NORMAL here.
 *
 * If strategy is not NULL, a nondefault buffer access strategy is used.
 * See buffer/README for details.
 */
inline Buffer
ReadBufferExtended(Relation reln, ForkNumber forkNum, BlockNumber blockNum,
				   ReadBufferMode mode, BufferAccessStrategy strategy)
{
	Buffer		buf;

	/*
	 * Reject attempts to read non-local temporary relations; we would be
	 * likely to get wrong data since we have no visibility into the owning
	 * session's local buffers.
	 */
	if (RELATION_IS_OTHER_TEMP(reln))
		ereport(ERROR,
				(errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
				 errmsg("cannot access temporary tables of other sessions")));

	/*
	 * Read the buffer, and update pgstat counters to reflect a cache hit or
	 * miss.
	 */
	buf = ReadBuffer_common(reln, RelationGetSmgr(reln), 0,
							forkNum, blockNum, mode, strategy);

	return buf;
}


/*
 * ReadBufferWithoutRelcache -- like ReadBufferExtended, but doesn't require
 *		a relcache entry for the relation.
 *
 * Pass permanent = true for a RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT relation, and
 * permanent = false for a RELPERSISTENCE_UNLOGGED relation. This function
 * cannot be used for temporary relations (and making that work might be
 * difficult, unless we only want to read temporary relations for our own
 * ProcNumber).
 */
Buffer
ReadBufferWithoutRelcache(RelFileLocator rlocator, ForkNumber forkNum,
						  BlockNumber blockNum, ReadBufferMode mode,
						  BufferAccessStrategy strategy, bool permanent)
{
	SMgrRelation smgr = smgropen(rlocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER);

	return ReadBuffer_common(NULL, smgr,
							 permanent ? RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT : RELPERSISTENCE_UNLOGGED,
							 forkNum, blockNum,
							 mode, strategy);
}

/*
 * Convenience wrapper around ExtendBufferedRelBy() extending by one block.
 */
Buffer
ExtendBufferedRel(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
				  ForkNumber forkNum,
				  BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
				  uint32 flags)
{
	Buffer		buf;
	uint32		extend_by = 1;

	ExtendBufferedRelBy(bmr, forkNum, strategy, flags, extend_by,
						&buf, &extend_by);

	return buf;
}

/*
 * Extend relation by multiple blocks.
 *
 * Tries to extend the relation by extend_by blocks. Depending on the
 * availability of resources the relation may end up being extended by a
 * smaller number of pages (unless an error is thrown, always by at least one
 * page). *extended_by is updated to the number of pages the relation has been
 * extended to.
 *
 * buffers needs to be an array that is at least extend_by long. Upon
 * completion, the first extend_by array elements will point to a pinned
 * buffer.
 *
 * If EB_LOCK_FIRST is part of flags, the first returned buffer is
 * locked. This is useful for callers that want a buffer that is guaranteed to
 * be empty.
 */
BlockNumber
ExtendBufferedRelBy(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
					ForkNumber fork,
					BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
					uint32 flags,
					uint32 extend_by,
					Buffer *buffers,
					uint32 *extended_by)
{
	Assert((bmr.rel != NULL) != (bmr.smgr != NULL));
	Assert(bmr.smgr == NULL || bmr.relpersistence != 0);
	Assert(extend_by > 0);

	if (bmr.smgr == NULL)
	{
		bmr.smgr = RelationGetSmgr(bmr.rel);
		bmr.relpersistence = bmr.rel->rd_rel->relpersistence;
	}

	return ExtendBufferedRelCommon(bmr, fork, strategy, flags,
								   extend_by, InvalidBlockNumber,
								   buffers, extended_by);
}

/*
 * Extend the relation so it is at least extend_to blocks large, return buffer
 * (extend_to - 1).
 *
 * This is useful for callers that want to write a specific page, regardless
 * of the current size of the relation (e.g. useful for visibilitymap and for
 * crash recovery).
 */
Buffer
ExtendBufferedRelTo(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
					ForkNumber fork,
					BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
					uint32 flags,
					BlockNumber extend_to,
					ReadBufferMode mode)
{
	BlockNumber current_size;
	uint32		extended_by = 0;
	Buffer		buffer = InvalidBuffer;
	Buffer		buffers[64];

	Assert((bmr.rel != NULL) != (bmr.smgr != NULL));
	Assert(bmr.smgr == NULL || bmr.relpersistence != 0);
	Assert(extend_to != InvalidBlockNumber && extend_to > 0);

	if (bmr.smgr == NULL)
	{
		bmr.smgr = RelationGetSmgr(bmr.rel);
		bmr.relpersistence = bmr.rel->rd_rel->relpersistence;
	}

	/*
	 * If desired, create the file if it doesn't exist.  If
	 * smgr_cached_nblocks[fork] is positive then it must exist, no need for
	 * an smgrexists call.
	 */
	if ((flags & EB_CREATE_FORK_IF_NEEDED) &&
		(bmr.smgr->smgr_cached_nblocks[fork] == 0 ||
		 bmr.smgr->smgr_cached_nblocks[fork] == InvalidBlockNumber) &&
		!smgrexists(bmr.smgr, fork))
	{
		LockRelationForExtension(bmr.rel, ExclusiveLock);

		/* recheck, fork might have been created concurrently */
		if (!smgrexists(bmr.smgr, fork))
			smgrcreate(bmr.smgr, fork, flags & EB_PERFORMING_RECOVERY);

		UnlockRelationForExtension(bmr.rel, ExclusiveLock);
	}

	/*
	 * If requested, invalidate size cache, so that smgrnblocks asks the
	 * kernel.
	 */
	if (flags & EB_CLEAR_SIZE_CACHE)
		bmr.smgr->smgr_cached_nblocks[fork] = InvalidBlockNumber;

	/*
	 * Estimate how many pages we'll need to extend by. This avoids acquiring
	 * unnecessarily many victim buffers.
	 */
	current_size = smgrnblocks(bmr.smgr, fork);

	/*
	 * Since no-one else can be looking at the page contents yet, there is no
	 * difference between an exclusive lock and a cleanup-strength lock. Note
	 * that we pass the original mode to ReadBuffer_common() below, when
	 * falling back to reading the buffer to a concurrent relation extension.
	 */
	if (mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK || mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK)
		flags |= EB_LOCK_TARGET;

	while (current_size < extend_to)
	{
		uint32		num_pages = lengthof(buffers);
		BlockNumber first_block;

		if ((uint64) current_size + num_pages > extend_to)
			num_pages = extend_to - current_size;

		first_block = ExtendBufferedRelCommon(bmr, fork, strategy, flags,
											  num_pages, extend_to,
											  buffers, &extended_by);

		current_size = first_block + extended_by;
		Assert(num_pages != 0 || current_size >= extend_to);

		for (uint32 i = 0; i < extended_by; i++)
		{
			if (first_block + i != extend_to - 1)
				ReleaseBuffer(buffers[i]);
			else
				buffer = buffers[i];
		}
	}

	/*
	 * It's possible that another backend concurrently extended the relation.
	 * In that case read the buffer.
	 *
	 * XXX: Should we control this via a flag?
	 */
	if (buffer == InvalidBuffer)
	{
		Assert(extended_by == 0);
		buffer = ReadBuffer_common(bmr.rel, bmr.smgr, 0,
								   fork, extend_to - 1, mode, strategy);
	}

	return buffer;
}

/*
 * Zero a buffer and lock it, as part of the implementation of
 * RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK or RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK.  The buffer must be already
 * pinned.  It does not have to be valid, but it is valid and locked on
 * return.
 */
static void
ZeroBuffer(Buffer buffer, ReadBufferMode mode)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	uint32		buf_state;

	Assert(mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK || mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);
	else
	{
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
		if (mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK)
			LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
		else
			LockBufferForCleanup(buffer);
	}

	memset(BufferGetPage(buffer), 0, BLCKSZ);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state);
		buf_state |= BM_VALID;
		pg_atomic_unlocked_write_u32(&bufHdr->state, buf_state);
	}
	else
	{
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		buf_state |= BM_VALID;
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/*
 * Pin a buffer for a given block.  *foundPtr is set to true if the block was
 * already present, or false if more work is required to either read it in or
 * zero it.
 */
static pg_attribute_always_inline Buffer
PinBufferForBlock(Relation rel,
				  SMgrRelation smgr,
				  char smgr_persistence,
				  ForkNumber forkNum,
				  BlockNumber blockNum,
				  BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
				  bool *foundPtr)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	IOContext	io_context;
	IOObject	io_object;
	char		persistence;

	Assert(blockNum != P_NEW);

	/*
	 * If there is no Relation it usually implies recovery and thus permanent,
	 * but we take an argmument because CreateAndCopyRelationData can reach us
	 * with only an SMgrRelation for an unlogged relation that we don't want
	 * to flag with BM_PERMANENT.
	 */
	if (rel)
		persistence = rel->rd_rel->relpersistence;
	else if (smgr_persistence == 0)
		persistence = RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT;
	else
		persistence = smgr_persistence;

	if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
	{
		io_context = IOCONTEXT_NORMAL;
		io_object = IOOBJECT_TEMP_RELATION;
	}
	else
	{
		io_context = IOContextForStrategy(strategy);
		io_object = IOOBJECT_RELATION;
	}

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_READ_START(forkNum, blockNum,
									   smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
									   smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
									   smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
									   smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend);

	if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
	{
		bufHdr = LocalBufferAlloc(smgr, forkNum, blockNum, foundPtr);
		if (*foundPtr)
			pgBufferUsage.local_blks_hit++;
	}
	else
	{
		bufHdr = BufferAlloc(smgr, persistence, forkNum, blockNum,
							 strategy, foundPtr, io_context);
		if (*foundPtr)
			pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_hit++;
	}
	if (rel)
	{
		/*
		 * While pgBufferUsage's "read" counter isn't bumped unless we reach
		 * WaitReadBuffers() (so, not for hits, and not for buffers that are
		 * zeroed instead), the per-relation stats always count them.
		 */
		pgstat_count_buffer_read(rel);
		if (*foundPtr)
			pgstat_count_buffer_hit(rel);
	}
	if (*foundPtr)
	{
		VacuumPageHit++;
		pgstat_count_io_op(io_object, io_context, IOOP_HIT);
		if (VacuumCostActive)
			VacuumCostBalance += VacuumCostPageHit;

		TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_READ_DONE(forkNum, blockNum,
										  smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
										  smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
										  smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
										  smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend,
										  true);
	}

	return BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(bufHdr);
}

/*
 * ReadBuffer_common -- common logic for all ReadBuffer variants
 *
 * smgr is required, rel is optional unless using P_NEW.
 */
static pg_attribute_always_inline Buffer
ReadBuffer_common(Relation rel, SMgrRelation smgr, char smgr_persistence,
				  ForkNumber forkNum,
				  BlockNumber blockNum, ReadBufferMode mode,
				  BufferAccessStrategy strategy)
{
	ReadBuffersOperation operation;
	Buffer		buffer;
	int			flags;

	/*
	 * Backward compatibility path, most code should use ExtendBufferedRel()
	 * instead, as acquiring the extension lock inside ExtendBufferedRel()
	 * scales a lot better.
	 */
	if (unlikely(blockNum == P_NEW))
	{
		uint32		flags = EB_SKIP_EXTENSION_LOCK;

		/*
		 * Since no-one else can be looking at the page contents yet, there is
		 * no difference between an exclusive lock and a cleanup-strength
		 * lock.
		 */
		if (mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK || mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK)
			flags |= EB_LOCK_FIRST;

		return ExtendBufferedRel(BMR_REL(rel), forkNum, strategy, flags);
	}

	if (unlikely(mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_CLEANUP_LOCK ||
				 mode == RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK))
	{
		bool		found;

		buffer = PinBufferForBlock(rel, smgr, smgr_persistence,
								   forkNum, blockNum, strategy, &found);
		ZeroBuffer(buffer, mode);
		return buffer;
	}

	if (mode == RBM_ZERO_ON_ERROR)
		flags = READ_BUFFERS_ZERO_ON_ERROR;
	else
		flags = 0;
	operation.smgr = smgr;
	operation.rel = rel;
	operation.smgr_persistence = smgr_persistence;
	operation.forknum = forkNum;
	operation.strategy = strategy;
	if (StartReadBuffer(&operation,
						&buffer,
						blockNum,
						flags))
		WaitReadBuffers(&operation);

	return buffer;
}

static pg_attribute_always_inline bool
StartReadBuffersImpl(ReadBuffersOperation *operation,
					 Buffer *buffers,
					 BlockNumber blockNum,
					 int *nblocks,
					 int flags)
{
	int			actual_nblocks = *nblocks;
	int			io_buffers_len = 0;

	Assert(*nblocks > 0);
	Assert(*nblocks <= MAX_IO_COMBINE_LIMIT);

	for (int i = 0; i < actual_nblocks; ++i)
	{
		bool		found;

		buffers[i] = PinBufferForBlock(operation->rel,
									   operation->smgr,
									   operation->smgr_persistence,
									   operation->forknum,
									   blockNum + i,
									   operation->strategy,
									   &found);

		if (found)
		{
			/*
			 * Terminate the read as soon as we get a hit.  It could be a
			 * single buffer hit, or it could be a hit that follows a readable
			 * range.  We don't want to create more than one readable range,
			 * so we stop here.
			 */
			actual_nblocks = i + 1;
			break;
		}
		else
		{
			/* Extend the readable range to cover this block. */
			io_buffers_len++;
		}
	}
	*nblocks = actual_nblocks;

	if (likely(io_buffers_len == 0))
		return false;

	/* Populate information needed for I/O. */
	operation->buffers = buffers;
	operation->blocknum = blockNum;
	operation->flags = flags;
	operation->nblocks = actual_nblocks;
	operation->io_buffers_len = io_buffers_len;

	if (flags & READ_BUFFERS_ISSUE_ADVICE)
	{
		/*
		 * In theory we should only do this if PinBufferForBlock() had to
		 * allocate new buffers above.  That way, if two calls to
		 * StartReadBuffers() were made for the same blocks before
		 * WaitReadBuffers(), only the first would issue the advice. That'd be
		 * a better simulation of true asynchronous I/O, which would only
		 * start the I/O once, but isn't done here for simplicity.  Note also
		 * that the following call might actually issue two advice calls if we
		 * cross a segment boundary; in a true asynchronous version we might
		 * choose to process only one real I/O at a time in that case.
		 */
		smgrprefetch(operation->smgr,
					 operation->forknum,
					 blockNum,
					 operation->io_buffers_len);
	}

	/* Indicate that WaitReadBuffers() should be called. */
	return true;
}

/*
 * Begin reading a range of blocks beginning at blockNum and extending for
 * *nblocks.  On return, up to *nblocks pinned buffers holding those blocks
 * are written into the buffers array, and *nblocks is updated to contain the
 * actual number, which may be fewer than requested.  Caller sets some of the
 * members of operation; see struct definition.
 *
 * If false is returned, no I/O is necessary.  If true is returned, one I/O
 * has been started, and WaitReadBuffers() must be called with the same
 * operation object before the buffers are accessed.  Along with the operation
 * object, the caller-supplied array of buffers must remain valid until
 * WaitReadBuffers() is called.
 *
 * Currently the I/O is only started with optional operating system advice if
 * requested by the caller with READ_BUFFERS_ISSUE_ADVICE, and the real I/O
 * happens synchronously in WaitReadBuffers().  In future work, true I/O could
 * be initiated here.
 */
bool
StartReadBuffers(ReadBuffersOperation *operation,
				 Buffer *buffers,
				 BlockNumber blockNum,
				 int *nblocks,
				 int flags)
{
	return StartReadBuffersImpl(operation, buffers, blockNum, nblocks, flags);
}

/*
 * Single block version of the StartReadBuffers().  This might save a few
 * instructions when called from another translation unit, because it is
 * specialized for nblocks == 1.
 */
bool
StartReadBuffer(ReadBuffersOperation *operation,
				Buffer *buffer,
				BlockNumber blocknum,
				int flags)
{
	int			nblocks = 1;
	bool		result;

	result = StartReadBuffersImpl(operation, buffer, blocknum, &nblocks, flags);
	Assert(nblocks == 1);		/* single block can't be short */

	return result;
}

static inline bool
WaitReadBuffersCanStartIO(Buffer buffer, bool nowait)
{
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);

		return (pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & BM_VALID) == 0;
	}
	else
		return StartBufferIO(GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1), true, nowait);
}

void
WaitReadBuffers(ReadBuffersOperation *operation)
{
	Buffer	   *buffers;
	int			nblocks;
	BlockNumber blocknum;
	ForkNumber	forknum;
	IOContext	io_context;
	IOObject	io_object;
	char		persistence;

	/*
	 * Currently operations are only allowed to include a read of some range,
	 * with an optional extra buffer that is already pinned at the end.  So
	 * nblocks can be at most one more than io_buffers_len.
	 */
	Assert((operation->nblocks == operation->io_buffers_len) ||
		   (operation->nblocks == operation->io_buffers_len + 1));

	/* Find the range of the physical read we need to perform. */
	nblocks = operation->io_buffers_len;
	if (nblocks == 0)
		return;					/* nothing to do */

	buffers = &operation->buffers[0];
	blocknum = operation->blocknum;
	forknum = operation->forknum;

	persistence = operation->rel
		? operation->rel->rd_rel->relpersistence
		: RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT;
	if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
	{
		io_context = IOCONTEXT_NORMAL;
		io_object = IOOBJECT_TEMP_RELATION;
	}
	else
	{
		io_context = IOContextForStrategy(operation->strategy);
		io_object = IOOBJECT_RELATION;
	}

	/*
	 * We count all these blocks as read by this backend.  This is traditional
	 * behavior, but might turn out to be not true if we find that someone
	 * else has beaten us and completed the read of some of these blocks.  In
	 * that case the system globally double-counts, but we traditionally don't
	 * count this as a "hit", and we don't have a separate counter for "miss,
	 * but another backend completed the read".
	 */
	if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
		pgBufferUsage.local_blks_read += nblocks;
	else
		pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_read += nblocks;

	for (int i = 0; i < nblocks; ++i)
	{
		int			io_buffers_len;
		Buffer		io_buffers[MAX_IO_COMBINE_LIMIT];
		void	   *io_pages[MAX_IO_COMBINE_LIMIT];
		instr_time	io_start;
		BlockNumber io_first_block;

		/*
		 * Skip this block if someone else has already completed it.  If an
		 * I/O is already in progress in another backend, this will wait for
		 * the outcome: either done, or something went wrong and we will
		 * retry.
		 */
		if (!WaitReadBuffersCanStartIO(buffers[i], false))
		{
			/*
			 * Report this as a 'hit' for this backend, even though it must
			 * have started out as a miss in PinBufferForBlock().
			 */
			TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_READ_DONE(forknum, blocknum + i,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend,
											  true);
			continue;
		}

		/* We found a buffer that we need to read in. */
		io_buffers[0] = buffers[i];
		io_pages[0] = BufferGetBlock(buffers[i]);
		io_first_block = blocknum + i;
		io_buffers_len = 1;

		/*
		 * How many neighboring-on-disk blocks can we can scatter-read into
		 * other buffers at the same time?  In this case we don't wait if we
		 * see an I/O already in progress.  We already hold BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS
		 * for the head block, so we should get on with that I/O as soon as
		 * possible.  We'll come back to this block again, above.
		 */
		while ((i + 1) < nblocks &&
			   WaitReadBuffersCanStartIO(buffers[i + 1], true))
		{
			/* Must be consecutive block numbers. */
			Assert(BufferGetBlockNumber(buffers[i + 1]) ==
				   BufferGetBlockNumber(buffers[i]) + 1);

			io_buffers[io_buffers_len] = buffers[++i];
			io_pages[io_buffers_len++] = BufferGetBlock(buffers[i]);
		}

		io_start = pgstat_prepare_io_time(track_io_timing);
		smgrreadv(operation->smgr, forknum, io_first_block, io_pages, io_buffers_len);
		pgstat_count_io_op_time(io_object, io_context, IOOP_READ, io_start,
								io_buffers_len);

		/* Verify each block we read, and terminate the I/O. */
		for (int j = 0; j < io_buffers_len; ++j)
		{
			BufferDesc *bufHdr;
			Block		bufBlock;

			if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
			{
				bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-io_buffers[j] - 1);
				bufBlock = LocalBufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr);
			}
			else
			{
				bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(io_buffers[j] - 1);
				bufBlock = BufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr);
			}

			/* check for garbage data */
			if (!PageIsVerifiedExtended((Page) bufBlock, io_first_block + j,
										PIV_LOG_WARNING | PIV_REPORT_STAT))
			{
				if ((operation->flags & READ_BUFFERS_ZERO_ON_ERROR) || zero_damaged_pages)
				{
					ereport(WARNING,
							(errcode(ERRCODE_DATA_CORRUPTED),
							 errmsg("invalid page in block %u of relation %s; zeroing out page",
									io_first_block + j,
									relpath(operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator, forknum))));
					memset(bufBlock, 0, BLCKSZ);
				}
				else
					ereport(ERROR,
							(errcode(ERRCODE_DATA_CORRUPTED),
							 errmsg("invalid page in block %u of relation %s",
									io_first_block + j,
									relpath(operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator, forknum))));
			}

			/* Terminate I/O and set BM_VALID. */
			if (persistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
			{
				uint32		buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state);

				buf_state |= BM_VALID;
				pg_atomic_unlocked_write_u32(&bufHdr->state, buf_state);
			}
			else
			{
				/* Set BM_VALID, terminate IO, and wake up any waiters */
				TerminateBufferIO(bufHdr, false, BM_VALID, true);
			}

			/* Report I/Os as completing individually. */
			TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_READ_DONE(forknum, io_first_block + j,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
											  operation->smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend,
											  false);
		}

		VacuumPageMiss += io_buffers_len;
		if (VacuumCostActive)
			VacuumCostBalance += VacuumCostPageMiss * io_buffers_len;
	}
}

/*
 * BufferAlloc -- subroutine for PinBufferForBlock.  Handles lookup of a shared
 *		buffer.  If no buffer exists already, selects a replacement victim and
 *		evicts the old page, but does NOT read in new page.
 *
 * "strategy" can be a buffer replacement strategy object, or NULL for
 * the default strategy.  The selected buffer's usage_count is advanced when
 * using the default strategy, but otherwise possibly not (see PinBuffer).
 *
 * The returned buffer is pinned and is already marked as holding the
 * desired page.  If it already did have the desired page, *foundPtr is
 * set true.  Otherwise, *foundPtr is set false.
 *
 * io_context is passed as an output parameter to avoid calling
 * IOContextForStrategy() when there is a shared buffers hit and no IO
 * statistics need be captured.
 *
 * No locks are held either at entry or exit.
 */
static pg_attribute_always_inline BufferDesc *
BufferAlloc(SMgrRelation smgr, char relpersistence, ForkNumber forkNum,
			BlockNumber blockNum,
			BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
			bool *foundPtr, IOContext io_context)
{
	BufferTag	newTag;			/* identity of requested block */
	uint32		newHash;		/* hash value for newTag */
	LWLock	   *newPartitionLock;	/* buffer partition lock for it */
	int			existing_buf_id;
	Buffer		victim_buffer;
	BufferDesc *victim_buf_hdr;
	uint32		victim_buf_state;

	/* Make sure we will have room to remember the buffer pin */
	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
	ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();

	/* create a tag so we can lookup the buffer */
	InitBufferTag(&newTag, &smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator, forkNum, blockNum);

	/* determine its hash code and partition lock ID */
	newHash = BufTableHashCode(&newTag);
	newPartitionLock = BufMappingPartitionLock(newHash);

	/* see if the block is in the buffer pool already */
	LWLockAcquire(newPartitionLock, LW_SHARED);
	existing_buf_id = BufTableLookup(&newTag, newHash);
	if (existing_buf_id >= 0)
	{
		BufferDesc *buf;
		bool		valid;

		/*
		 * Found it.  Now, pin the buffer so no one can steal it from the
		 * buffer pool, and check to see if the correct data has been loaded
		 * into the buffer.
		 */
		buf = GetBufferDescriptor(existing_buf_id);

		valid = PinBuffer(buf, strategy);

		/* Can release the mapping lock as soon as we've pinned it */
		LWLockRelease(newPartitionLock);

		*foundPtr = true;

		if (!valid)
		{
			/*
			 * We can only get here if (a) someone else is still reading in
			 * the page, (b) a previous read attempt failed, or (c) someone
			 * called StartReadBuffers() but not yet WaitReadBuffers().
			 */
			*foundPtr = false;
		}

		return buf;
	}

	/*
	 * Didn't find it in the buffer pool.  We'll have to initialize a new
	 * buffer.  Remember to unlock the mapping lock while doing the work.
	 */
	LWLockRelease(newPartitionLock);

	/*
	 * Acquire a victim buffer. Somebody else might try to do the same, we
	 * don't hold any conflicting locks. If so we'll have to undo our work
	 * later.
	 */
	victim_buffer = GetVictimBuffer(strategy, io_context);
	victim_buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(victim_buffer - 1);

	/*
	 * Try to make a hashtable entry for the buffer under its new tag. If
	 * somebody else inserted another buffer for the tag, we'll release the
	 * victim buffer we acquired and use the already inserted one.
	 */
	LWLockAcquire(newPartitionLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
	existing_buf_id = BufTableInsert(&newTag, newHash, victim_buf_hdr->buf_id);
	if (existing_buf_id >= 0)
	{
		BufferDesc *existing_buf_hdr;
		bool		valid;

		/*
		 * Got a collision. Someone has already done what we were about to do.
		 * We'll just handle this as if it were found in the buffer pool in
		 * the first place.  First, give up the buffer we were planning to
		 * use.
		 *
		 * We could do this after releasing the partition lock, but then we'd
		 * have to call ResourceOwnerEnlarge() & ReservePrivateRefCountEntry()
		 * before acquiring the lock, for the rare case of such a collision.
		 */
		UnpinBuffer(victim_buf_hdr);

		/*
		 * The victim buffer we acquired previously is clean and unused, let
		 * it be found again quickly
		 */
		StrategyFreeBuffer(victim_buf_hdr);

		/* remaining code should match code at top of routine */

		existing_buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(existing_buf_id);

		valid = PinBuffer(existing_buf_hdr, strategy);

		/* Can release the mapping lock as soon as we've pinned it */
		LWLockRelease(newPartitionLock);

		*foundPtr = true;

		if (!valid)
		{
			/*
			 * We can only get here if (a) someone else is still reading in
			 * the page, (b) a previous read attempt failed, or (c) someone
			 * called StartReadBuffers() but not yet WaitReadBuffers().
			 */
			*foundPtr = false;
		}

		return existing_buf_hdr;
	}

	/*
	 * Need to lock the buffer header too in order to change its tag.
	 */
	victim_buf_state = LockBufHdr(victim_buf_hdr);

	/* some sanity checks while we hold the buffer header lock */
	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(victim_buf_state) == 1);
	Assert(!(victim_buf_state & (BM_TAG_VALID | BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY | BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS)));

	victim_buf_hdr->tag = newTag;

	/*
	 * Make sure BM_PERMANENT is set for buffers that must be written at every
	 * checkpoint.  Unlogged buffers only need to be written at shutdown
	 * checkpoints, except for their "init" forks, which need to be treated
	 * just like permanent relations.
	 */
	victim_buf_state |= BM_TAG_VALID | BUF_USAGECOUNT_ONE;
	if (relpersistence == RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT || forkNum == INIT_FORKNUM)
		victim_buf_state |= BM_PERMANENT;

	UnlockBufHdr(victim_buf_hdr, victim_buf_state);

	LWLockRelease(newPartitionLock);

	/*
	 * Buffer contents are currently invalid.
	 */
	*foundPtr = false;

	return victim_buf_hdr;
}

/*
 * InvalidateBuffer -- mark a shared buffer invalid and return it to the
 * freelist.
 *
 * The buffer header spinlock must be held at entry.  We drop it before
 * returning.  (This is sane because the caller must have locked the
 * buffer in order to be sure it should be dropped.)
 *
 * This is used only in contexts such as dropping a relation.  We assume
 * that no other backend could possibly be interested in using the page,
 * so the only reason the buffer might be pinned is if someone else is
 * trying to write it out.  We have to let them finish before we can
 * reclaim the buffer.
 *
 * The buffer could get reclaimed by someone else while we are waiting
 * to acquire the necessary locks; if so, don't mess it up.
 */
static void
InvalidateBuffer(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	BufferTag	oldTag;
	uint32		oldHash;		/* hash value for oldTag */
	LWLock	   *oldPartitionLock;	/* buffer partition lock for it */
	uint32		oldFlags;
	uint32		buf_state;

	/* Save the original buffer tag before dropping the spinlock */
	oldTag = buf->tag;

	buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);
	Assert(buf_state & BM_LOCKED);
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	/*
	 * Need to compute the old tag's hashcode and partition lock ID. XXX is it
	 * worth storing the hashcode in BufferDesc so we need not recompute it
	 * here?  Probably not.
	 */
	oldHash = BufTableHashCode(&oldTag);
	oldPartitionLock = BufMappingPartitionLock(oldHash);

retry:

	/*
	 * Acquire exclusive mapping lock in preparation for changing the buffer's
	 * association.
	 */
	LWLockAcquire(oldPartitionLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);

	/* Re-lock the buffer header */
	buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

	/* If it's changed while we were waiting for lock, do nothing */
	if (!BufferTagsEqual(&buf->tag, &oldTag))
	{
		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
		LWLockRelease(oldPartitionLock);
		return;
	}

	/*
	 * We assume the only reason for it to be pinned is that someone else is
	 * flushing the page out.  Wait for them to finish.  (This could be an
	 * infinite loop if the refcount is messed up... it would be nice to time
	 * out after awhile, but there seems no way to be sure how many loops may
	 * be needed.  Note that if the other guy has pinned the buffer but not
	 * yet done StartBufferIO, WaitIO will fall through and we'll effectively
	 * be busy-looping here.)
	 */
	if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) != 0)
	{
		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
		LWLockRelease(oldPartitionLock);
		/* safety check: should definitely not be our *own* pin */
		if (GetPrivateRefCount(BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf)) > 0)
			elog(ERROR, "buffer is pinned in InvalidateBuffer");
		WaitIO(buf);
		goto retry;
	}

	/*
	 * Clear out the buffer's tag and flags.  We must do this to ensure that
	 * linear scans of the buffer array don't think the buffer is valid.
	 */
	oldFlags = buf_state & BUF_FLAG_MASK;
	ClearBufferTag(&buf->tag);
	buf_state &= ~(BUF_FLAG_MASK | BUF_USAGECOUNT_MASK);
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	/*
	 * Remove the buffer from the lookup hashtable, if it was in there.
	 */
	if (oldFlags & BM_TAG_VALID)
		BufTableDelete(&oldTag, oldHash);

	/*
	 * Done with mapping lock.
	 */
	LWLockRelease(oldPartitionLock);

	/*
	 * Insert the buffer at the head of the list of free buffers.
	 */
	StrategyFreeBuffer(buf);
}

/*
 * Helper routine for GetVictimBuffer()
 *
 * Needs to be called on a buffer with a valid tag, pinned, but without the
 * buffer header spinlock held.
 *
 * Returns true if the buffer can be reused, in which case the buffer is only
 * pinned by this backend and marked as invalid, false otherwise.
 */
static bool
InvalidateVictimBuffer(BufferDesc *buf_hdr)
{
	uint32		buf_state;
	uint32		hash;
	LWLock	   *partition_lock;
	BufferTag	tag;

	Assert(GetPrivateRefCount(BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf_hdr)) == 1);

	/* have buffer pinned, so it's safe to read tag without lock */
	tag = buf_hdr->tag;

	hash = BufTableHashCode(&tag);
	partition_lock = BufMappingPartitionLock(hash);

	LWLockAcquire(partition_lock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);

	/* lock the buffer header */
	buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf_hdr);

	/*
	 * We have the buffer pinned nobody else should have been able to unset
	 * this concurrently.
	 */
	Assert(buf_state & BM_TAG_VALID);
	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);
	Assert(BufferTagsEqual(&buf_hdr->tag, &tag));

	/*
	 * If somebody else pinned the buffer since, or even worse, dirtied it,
	 * give up on this buffer: It's clearly in use.
	 */
	if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) != 1 || (buf_state & BM_DIRTY))
	{
		Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);

		UnlockBufHdr(buf_hdr, buf_state);
		LWLockRelease(partition_lock);

		return false;
	}

	/*
	 * Clear out the buffer's tag and flags and usagecount.  This is not
	 * strictly required, as BM_TAG_VALID/BM_VALID needs to be checked before
	 * doing anything with the buffer. But currently it's beneficial, as the
	 * cheaper pre-check for several linear scans of shared buffers use the
	 * tag (see e.g. FlushDatabaseBuffers()).
	 */
	ClearBufferTag(&buf_hdr->tag);
	buf_state &= ~(BUF_FLAG_MASK | BUF_USAGECOUNT_MASK);
	UnlockBufHdr(buf_hdr, buf_state);

	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);

	/* finally delete buffer from the buffer mapping table */
	BufTableDelete(&tag, hash);

	LWLockRelease(partition_lock);

	Assert(!(buf_state & (BM_DIRTY | BM_VALID | BM_TAG_VALID)));
	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);
	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf_hdr->state)) > 0);

	return true;
}

static Buffer
GetVictimBuffer(BufferAccessStrategy strategy, IOContext io_context)
{
	BufferDesc *buf_hdr;
	Buffer		buf;
	uint32		buf_state;
	bool		from_ring;

	/*
	 * Ensure, while the spinlock's not yet held, that there's a free refcount
	 * entry, and a resource owner slot for the pin.
	 */
	ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

	/* we return here if a prospective victim buffer gets used concurrently */
again:

	/*
	 * Select a victim buffer.  The buffer is returned with its header
	 * spinlock still held!
	 */
	buf_hdr = StrategyGetBuffer(strategy, &buf_state, &from_ring);
	buf = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf_hdr);

	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 0);

	/* Pin the buffer and then release the buffer spinlock */
	PinBuffer_Locked(buf_hdr);

	/*
	 * We shouldn't have any other pins for this buffer.
	 */
	CheckBufferIsPinnedOnce(buf);

	/*
	 * If the buffer was dirty, try to write it out.  There is a race
	 * condition here, in that someone might dirty it after we released the
	 * buffer header lock above, or even while we are writing it out (since
	 * our share-lock won't prevent hint-bit updates).  We will recheck the
	 * dirty bit after re-locking the buffer header.
	 */
	if (buf_state & BM_DIRTY)
	{
		LWLock	   *content_lock;

		Assert(buf_state & BM_TAG_VALID);
		Assert(buf_state & BM_VALID);

		/*
		 * We need a share-lock on the buffer contents to write it out (else
		 * we might write invalid data, eg because someone else is compacting
		 * the page contents while we write).  We must use a conditional lock
		 * acquisition here to avoid deadlock.  Even though the buffer was not
		 * pinned (and therefore surely not locked) when StrategyGetBuffer
		 * returned it, someone else could have pinned and exclusive-locked it
		 * by the time we get here. If we try to get the lock unconditionally,
		 * we'd block waiting for them; if they later block waiting for us,
		 * deadlock ensues. (This has been observed to happen when two
		 * backends are both trying to split btree index pages, and the second
		 * one just happens to be trying to split the page the first one got
		 * from StrategyGetBuffer.)
		 */
		content_lock = BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf_hdr);
		if (!LWLockConditionalAcquire(content_lock, LW_SHARED))
		{
			/*
			 * Someone else has locked the buffer, so give it up and loop back
			 * to get another one.
			 */
			UnpinBuffer(buf_hdr);
			goto again;
		}

		/*
		 * If using a nondefault strategy, and writing the buffer would
		 * require a WAL flush, let the strategy decide whether to go ahead
		 * and write/reuse the buffer or to choose another victim.  We need a
		 * lock to inspect the page LSN, so this can't be done inside
		 * StrategyGetBuffer.
		 */
		if (strategy != NULL)
		{
			XLogRecPtr	lsn;

			/* Read the LSN while holding buffer header lock */
			buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf_hdr);
			lsn = BufferGetLSN(buf_hdr);
			UnlockBufHdr(buf_hdr, buf_state);

			if (XLogNeedsFlush(lsn)
				&& StrategyRejectBuffer(strategy, buf_hdr, from_ring))
			{
				LWLockRelease(content_lock);
				UnpinBuffer(buf_hdr);
				goto again;
			}
		}

		/* OK, do the I/O */
		FlushBuffer(buf_hdr, NULL, IOOBJECT_RELATION, io_context);
		LWLockRelease(content_lock);

		ScheduleBufferTagForWriteback(&BackendWritebackContext, io_context,
									  &buf_hdr->tag);
	}


	if (buf_state & BM_VALID)
	{
		/*
		 * When a BufferAccessStrategy is in use, blocks evicted from shared
		 * buffers are counted as IOOP_EVICT in the corresponding context
		 * (e.g. IOCONTEXT_BULKWRITE). Shared buffers are evicted by a
		 * strategy in two cases: 1) while initially claiming buffers for the
		 * strategy ring 2) to replace an existing strategy ring buffer
		 * because it is pinned or in use and cannot be reused.
		 *
		 * Blocks evicted from buffers already in the strategy ring are
		 * counted as IOOP_REUSE in the corresponding strategy context.
		 *
		 * At this point, we can accurately count evictions and reuses,
		 * because we have successfully claimed the valid buffer. Previously,
		 * we may have been forced to release the buffer due to concurrent
		 * pinners or erroring out.
		 */
		pgstat_count_io_op(IOOBJECT_RELATION, io_context,
						   from_ring ? IOOP_REUSE : IOOP_EVICT);
	}

	/*
	 * If the buffer has an entry in the buffer mapping table, delete it. This
	 * can fail because another backend could have pinned or dirtied the
	 * buffer.
	 */
	if ((buf_state & BM_TAG_VALID) && !InvalidateVictimBuffer(buf_hdr))
	{
		UnpinBuffer(buf_hdr);
		goto again;
	}

	/* a final set of sanity checks */
#ifdef USE_ASSERT_CHECKING
	buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf_hdr->state);

	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 1);
	Assert(!(buf_state & (BM_TAG_VALID | BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY)));

	CheckBufferIsPinnedOnce(buf);
#endif

	return buf;
}

/*
 * Limit the number of pins a batch operation may additionally acquire, to
 * avoid running out of pinnable buffers.
 *
 * One additional pin is always allowed, as otherwise the operation likely
 * cannot be performed at all.
 *
 * The number of allowed pins for a backend is computed based on
 * shared_buffers and the maximum number of connections possible. That's very
 * pessimistic, but outside of toy-sized shared_buffers it should allow
 * sufficient pins.
 */
void
LimitAdditionalPins(uint32 *additional_pins)
{
	uint32		max_backends;
	int			max_proportional_pins;

	if (*additional_pins <= 1)
		return;

	max_backends = MaxBackends + NUM_AUXILIARY_PROCS;
	max_proportional_pins = NBuffers / max_backends;

	/*
	 * Subtract the approximate number of buffers already pinned by this
	 * backend. We get the number of "overflowed" pins for free, but don't
	 * know the number of pins in PrivateRefCountArray. The cost of
	 * calculating that exactly doesn't seem worth it, so just assume the max.
	 */
	max_proportional_pins -= PrivateRefCountOverflowed + REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES;

	if (max_proportional_pins <= 0)
		max_proportional_pins = 1;

	if (*additional_pins > max_proportional_pins)
		*additional_pins = max_proportional_pins;
}

/*
 * Logic shared between ExtendBufferedRelBy(), ExtendBufferedRelTo(). Just to
 * avoid duplicating the tracing and relpersistence related logic.
 */
static BlockNumber
ExtendBufferedRelCommon(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
						ForkNumber fork,
						BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
						uint32 flags,
						uint32 extend_by,
						BlockNumber extend_upto,
						Buffer *buffers,
						uint32 *extended_by)
{
	BlockNumber first_block;

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_EXTEND_START(fork,
										 bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
										 bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
										 bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
										 bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend,
										 extend_by);

	if (bmr.relpersistence == RELPERSISTENCE_TEMP)
		first_block = ExtendBufferedRelLocal(bmr, fork, flags,
											 extend_by, extend_upto,
											 buffers, &extend_by);
	else
		first_block = ExtendBufferedRelShared(bmr, fork, strategy, flags,
											  extend_by, extend_upto,
											  buffers, &extend_by);
	*extended_by = extend_by;

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_EXTEND_DONE(fork,
										bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
										bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
										bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber,
										bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.backend,
										*extended_by,
										first_block);

	return first_block;
}

/*
 * Implementation of ExtendBufferedRelBy() and ExtendBufferedRelTo() for
 * shared buffers.
 */
static BlockNumber
ExtendBufferedRelShared(BufferManagerRelation bmr,
						ForkNumber fork,
						BufferAccessStrategy strategy,
						uint32 flags,
						uint32 extend_by,
						BlockNumber extend_upto,
						Buffer *buffers,
						uint32 *extended_by)
{
	BlockNumber first_block;
	IOContext	io_context = IOContextForStrategy(strategy);
	instr_time	io_start;

	LimitAdditionalPins(&extend_by);

	/*
	 * Acquire victim buffers for extension without holding extension lock.
	 * Writing out victim buffers is the most expensive part of extending the
	 * relation, particularly when doing so requires WAL flushes. Zeroing out
	 * the buffers is also quite expensive, so do that before holding the
	 * extension lock as well.
	 *
	 * These pages are pinned by us and not valid. While we hold the pin they
	 * can't be acquired as victim buffers by another backend.
	 */
	for (uint32 i = 0; i < extend_by; i++)
	{
		Block		buf_block;

		buffers[i] = GetVictimBuffer(strategy, io_context);
		buf_block = BufHdrGetBlock(GetBufferDescriptor(buffers[i] - 1));

		/* new buffers are zero-filled */
		MemSet((char *) buf_block, 0, BLCKSZ);
	}

	/*
	 * Lock relation against concurrent extensions, unless requested not to.
	 *
	 * We use the same extension lock for all forks. That's unnecessarily
	 * restrictive, but currently extensions for forks don't happen often
	 * enough to make it worth locking more granularly.
	 *
	 * Note that another backend might have extended the relation by the time
	 * we get the lock.
	 */
	if (!(flags & EB_SKIP_EXTENSION_LOCK))
		LockRelationForExtension(bmr.rel, ExclusiveLock);

	/*
	 * If requested, invalidate size cache, so that smgrnblocks asks the
	 * kernel.
	 */
	if (flags & EB_CLEAR_SIZE_CACHE)
		bmr.smgr->smgr_cached_nblocks[fork] = InvalidBlockNumber;

	first_block = smgrnblocks(bmr.smgr, fork);

	/*
	 * Now that we have the accurate relation size, check if the caller wants
	 * us to extend to only up to a specific size. If there were concurrent
	 * extensions, we might have acquired too many buffers and need to release
	 * them.
	 */
	if (extend_upto != InvalidBlockNumber)
	{
		uint32		orig_extend_by = extend_by;

		if (first_block > extend_upto)
			extend_by = 0;
		else if ((uint64) first_block + extend_by > extend_upto)
			extend_by = extend_upto - first_block;

		for (uint32 i = extend_by; i < orig_extend_by; i++)
		{
			BufferDesc *buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffers[i] - 1);

			/*
			 * The victim buffer we acquired previously is clean and unused,
			 * let it be found again quickly
			 */
			StrategyFreeBuffer(buf_hdr);
			UnpinBuffer(buf_hdr);
		}

		if (extend_by == 0)
		{
			if (!(flags & EB_SKIP_EXTENSION_LOCK))
				UnlockRelationForExtension(bmr.rel, ExclusiveLock);
			*extended_by = extend_by;
			return first_block;
		}
	}

	/* Fail if relation is already at maximum possible length */
	if ((uint64) first_block + extend_by >= MaxBlockNumber)
		ereport(ERROR,
				(errcode(ERRCODE_PROGRAM_LIMIT_EXCEEDED),
				 errmsg("cannot extend relation %s beyond %u blocks",
						relpath(bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator, fork),
						MaxBlockNumber)));

	/*
	 * Insert buffers into buffer table, mark as IO_IN_PROGRESS.
	 *
	 * This needs to happen before we extend the relation, because as soon as
	 * we do, other backends can start to read in those pages.
	 */
	for (uint32 i = 0; i < extend_by; i++)
	{
		Buffer		victim_buf = buffers[i];
		BufferDesc *victim_buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(victim_buf - 1);
		BufferTag	tag;
		uint32		hash;
		LWLock	   *partition_lock;
		int			existing_id;

		/* in case we need to pin an existing buffer below */
		ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
		ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();

		InitBufferTag(&tag, &bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator.locator, fork, first_block + i);
		hash = BufTableHashCode(&tag);
		partition_lock = BufMappingPartitionLock(hash);

		LWLockAcquire(partition_lock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);

		existing_id = BufTableInsert(&tag, hash, victim_buf_hdr->buf_id);

		/*
		 * We get here only in the corner case where we are trying to extend
		 * the relation but we found a pre-existing buffer. This can happen
		 * because a prior attempt at extending the relation failed, and
		 * because mdread doesn't complain about reads beyond EOF (when
		 * zero_damaged_pages is ON) and so a previous attempt to read a block
		 * beyond EOF could have left a "valid" zero-filled buffer.
		 * Unfortunately, we have also seen this case occurring because of
		 * buggy Linux kernels that sometimes return an lseek(SEEK_END) result
		 * that doesn't account for a recent write. In that situation, the
		 * pre-existing buffer would contain valid data that we don't want to
		 * overwrite.  Since the legitimate cases should always have left a
		 * zero-filled buffer, complain if not PageIsNew.
		 */
		if (existing_id >= 0)
		{
			BufferDesc *existing_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(existing_id);
			Block		buf_block;
			bool		valid;

			/*
			 * Pin the existing buffer before releasing the partition lock,
			 * preventing it from being evicted.
			 */
			valid = PinBuffer(existing_hdr, strategy);

			LWLockRelease(partition_lock);

			/*
			 * The victim buffer we acquired previously is clean and unused,
			 * let it be found again quickly
			 */
			StrategyFreeBuffer(victim_buf_hdr);
			UnpinBuffer(victim_buf_hdr);

			buffers[i] = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(existing_hdr);
			buf_block = BufHdrGetBlock(existing_hdr);

			if (valid && !PageIsNew((Page) buf_block))
				ereport(ERROR,
						(errmsg("unexpected data beyond EOF in block %u of relation %s",
								existing_hdr->tag.blockNum, relpath(bmr.smgr->smgr_rlocator, fork)),
						 errhint("This has been seen to occur with buggy kernels; consider updating your system.")));

			/*
			 * We *must* do smgr[zero]extend before succeeding, else the page
			 * will not be reserved by the kernel, and the next P_NEW call
			 * will decide to return the same page.  Clear the BM_VALID bit,
			 * do StartBufferIO() and proceed.
			 *
			 * Loop to handle the very small possibility that someone re-sets
			 * BM_VALID between our clearing it and StartBufferIO inspecting
			 * it.
			 */
			do
			{
				uint32		buf_state = LockBufHdr(existing_hdr);

				buf_state &= ~BM_VALID;
				UnlockBufHdr(existing_hdr, buf_state);
			} while (!StartBufferIO(existing_hdr, true, false));
		}
		else
		{
			uint32		buf_state;

			buf_state = LockBufHdr(victim_buf_hdr);

			/* some sanity checks while we hold the buffer header lock */
			Assert(!(buf_state & (BM_VALID | BM_TAG_VALID | BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED)));
			Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 1);

			victim_buf_hdr->tag = tag;

			buf_state |= BM_TAG_VALID | BUF_USAGECOUNT_ONE;
			if (bmr.relpersistence == RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT || fork == INIT_FORKNUM)
				buf_state |= BM_PERMANENT;

			UnlockBufHdr(victim_buf_hdr, buf_state);

			LWLockRelease(partition_lock);

			/* XXX: could combine the locked operations in it with the above */
			StartBufferIO(victim_buf_hdr, true, false);
		}
	}

	io_start = pgstat_prepare_io_time(track_io_timing);

	/*
	 * Note: if smgrzeroextend fails, we will end up with buffers that are
	 * allocated but not marked BM_VALID.  The next relation extension will
	 * still select the same block number (because the relation didn't get any
	 * longer on disk) and so future attempts to extend the relation will find
	 * the same buffers (if they have not been recycled) but come right back
	 * here to try smgrzeroextend again.
	 *
	 * We don't need to set checksum for all-zero pages.
	 */
	smgrzeroextend(bmr.smgr, fork, first_block, extend_by, false);

	/*
	 * Release the file-extension lock; it's now OK for someone else to extend
	 * the relation some more.
	 *
	 * We remove IO_IN_PROGRESS after this, as waking up waiting backends can
	 * take noticeable time.
	 */
	if (!(flags & EB_SKIP_EXTENSION_LOCK))
		UnlockRelationForExtension(bmr.rel, ExclusiveLock);

	pgstat_count_io_op_time(IOOBJECT_RELATION, io_context, IOOP_EXTEND,
							io_start, extend_by);

	/* Set BM_VALID, terminate IO, and wake up any waiters */
	for (uint32 i = 0; i < extend_by; i++)
	{
		Buffer		buf = buffers[i];
		BufferDesc *buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buf - 1);
		bool		lock = false;

		if (flags & EB_LOCK_FIRST && i == 0)
			lock = true;
		else if (flags & EB_LOCK_TARGET)
		{
			Assert(extend_upto != InvalidBlockNumber);
			if (first_block + i + 1 == extend_upto)
				lock = true;
		}

		if (lock)
			LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf_hdr), LW_EXCLUSIVE);

		TerminateBufferIO(buf_hdr, false, BM_VALID, true);
	}

	pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_written += extend_by;

	*extended_by = extend_by;

	return first_block;
}

/*
 * BufferIsExclusiveLocked
 *
 *      Checks if buffer is exclusive-locked.
 *
 * Buffer must be pinned.
 */
bool
BufferIsExclusiveLocked(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		int			bufid = -buffer - 1;

		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(bufid);
	}
	else
	{
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	}

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	return LWLockHeldByMeInMode(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr),
								LW_EXCLUSIVE);
}

/*
 * BufferIsDirty
 *
 *		Checks if buffer is already dirty.
 *
 * Buffer must be pinned and exclusive-locked.  (Without an exclusive lock,
 * the result may be stale before it's returned.)
 */
bool
BufferIsDirty(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		int			bufid = -buffer - 1;

		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(bufid);
	}
	else
	{
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	}

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	Assert(LWLockHeldByMeInMode(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr),
								LW_EXCLUSIVE));

	return pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & BM_DIRTY;
}

/*
 * MarkBufferDirty
 *
 *		Marks buffer contents as dirty (actual write happens later).
 *
 * Buffer must be pinned and exclusive-locked.  (If caller does not hold
 * exclusive lock, then somebody could be in process of writing the buffer,
 * leading to risk of bad data written to disk.)
 */
void
MarkBufferDirty(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	uint32		buf_state;
	uint32		old_buf_state;

	if (!BufferIsValid(buffer))
		elog(ERROR, "bad buffer ID: %d", buffer);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		MarkLocalBufferDirty(buffer);
		return;
	}

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	Assert(LWLockHeldByMeInMode(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr),
								LW_EXCLUSIVE));

	old_buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state);
	for (;;)
	{
		if (old_buf_state & BM_LOCKED)
			old_buf_state = WaitBufHdrUnlocked(bufHdr);

		buf_state = old_buf_state;

		Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);
		buf_state |= BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED;

		if (pg_atomic_compare_exchange_u32(&bufHdr->state, &old_buf_state,
										   buf_state))
			break;
	}

	/*
	 * If the buffer was not dirty already, do vacuum accounting.
	 */
	if (!(old_buf_state & BM_DIRTY))
	{
		VacuumPageDirty++;
		pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_dirtied++;
		if (VacuumCostActive)
			VacuumCostBalance += VacuumCostPageDirty;
	}
}

/*
 * ReleaseAndReadBuffer -- combine ReleaseBuffer() and ReadBuffer()
 *
 * Formerly, this saved one cycle of acquiring/releasing the BufMgrLock
 * compared to calling the two routines separately.  Now it's mainly just
 * a convenience function.  However, if the passed buffer is valid and
 * already contains the desired block, we just return it as-is; and that
 * does save considerable work compared to a full release and reacquire.
 *
 * Note: it is OK to pass buffer == InvalidBuffer, indicating that no old
 * buffer actually needs to be released.  This case is the same as ReadBuffer,
 * but can save some tests in the caller.
 */
Buffer
ReleaseAndReadBuffer(Buffer buffer,
					 Relation relation,
					 BlockNumber blockNum)
{
	ForkNumber	forkNum = MAIN_FORKNUM;
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	if (BufferIsValid(buffer))
	{
		Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
		if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		{
			bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);
			if (bufHdr->tag.blockNum == blockNum &&
				BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &relation->rd_locator) &&
				BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag) == forkNum)
				return buffer;
			UnpinLocalBuffer(buffer);
		}
		else
		{
			bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
			/* we have pin, so it's ok to examine tag without spinlock */
			if (bufHdr->tag.blockNum == blockNum &&
				BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &relation->rd_locator) &&
				BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag) == forkNum)
				return buffer;
			UnpinBuffer(bufHdr);
		}
	}

	return ReadBuffer(relation, blockNum);
}

/*
 * PinBuffer -- make buffer unavailable for replacement.
 *
 * For the default access strategy, the buffer's usage_count is incremented
 * when we first pin it; for other strategies we just make sure the usage_count
 * isn't zero.  (The idea of the latter is that we don't want synchronized
 * heap scans to inflate the count, but we need it to not be zero to discourage
 * other backends from stealing buffers from our ring.  As long as we cycle
 * through the ring faster than the global clock-sweep cycles, buffers in
 * our ring won't be chosen as victims for replacement by other backends.)
 *
 * This should be applied only to shared buffers, never local ones.
 *
 * Since buffers are pinned/unpinned very frequently, pin buffers without
 * taking the buffer header lock; instead update the state variable in loop of
 * CAS operations. Hopefully it's just a single CAS.
 *
 * Note that ResourceOwnerEnlarge() and ReservePrivateRefCountEntry()
 * must have been done already.
 *
 * Returns true if buffer is BM_VALID, else false.  This provision allows
 * some callers to avoid an extra spinlock cycle.
 */
static bool
PinBuffer(BufferDesc *buf, BufferAccessStrategy strategy)
{
	Buffer		b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);
	bool		result;
	PrivateRefCountEntry *ref;

	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(b));
	Assert(ReservedRefCountEntry != NULL);

	ref = GetPrivateRefCountEntry(b, true);

	if (ref == NULL)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;
		uint32		old_buf_state;

		ref = NewPrivateRefCountEntry(b);

		old_buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);
		for (;;)
		{
			if (old_buf_state & BM_LOCKED)
				old_buf_state = WaitBufHdrUnlocked(buf);

			buf_state = old_buf_state;

			/* increase refcount */
			buf_state += BUF_REFCOUNT_ONE;

			if (strategy == NULL)
			{
				/* Default case: increase usagecount unless already max. */
				if (BUF_STATE_GET_USAGECOUNT(buf_state) < BM_MAX_USAGE_COUNT)
					buf_state += BUF_USAGECOUNT_ONE;
			}
			else
			{
				/*
				 * Ring buffers shouldn't evict others from pool.  Thus we
				 * don't make usagecount more than 1.
				 */
				if (BUF_STATE_GET_USAGECOUNT(buf_state) == 0)
					buf_state += BUF_USAGECOUNT_ONE;
			}

			if (pg_atomic_compare_exchange_u32(&buf->state, &old_buf_state,
											   buf_state))
			{
				result = (buf_state & BM_VALID) != 0;

				/*
				 * Assume that we acquired a buffer pin for the purposes of
				 * Valgrind buffer client checks (even in !result case) to
				 * keep things simple.  Buffers that are unsafe to access are
				 * not generally guaranteed to be marked undefined or
				 * non-accessible in any case.
				 */
				VALGRIND_MAKE_MEM_DEFINED(BufHdrGetBlock(buf), BLCKSZ);
				break;
			}
		}
	}
	else
	{
		/*
		 * If we previously pinned the buffer, it is likely to be valid, but
		 * it may not be if StartReadBuffers() was called and
		 * WaitReadBuffers() hasn't been called yet.  We'll check by loading
		 * the flags without locking.  This is racy, but it's OK to return
		 * false spuriously: when WaitReadBuffers() calls StartBufferIO(),
		 * it'll see that it's now valid.
		 *
		 * Note: We deliberately avoid a Valgrind client request here.
		 * Individual access methods can optionally superimpose buffer page
		 * client requests on top of our client requests to enforce that
		 * buffers are only accessed while locked (and pinned).  It's possible
		 * that the buffer page is legitimately non-accessible here.  We
		 * cannot meddle with that.
		 */
		result = (pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state) & BM_VALID) != 0;
	}

	ref->refcount++;
	Assert(ref->refcount > 0);
	ResourceOwnerRememberBuffer(CurrentResourceOwner, b);
	return result;
}

/*
 * PinBuffer_Locked -- as above, but caller already locked the buffer header.
 * The spinlock is released before return.
 *
 * As this function is called with the spinlock held, the caller has to
 * previously call ReservePrivateRefCountEntry() and
 * ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
 *
 * Currently, no callers of this function want to modify the buffer's
 * usage_count at all, so there's no need for a strategy parameter.
 * Also we don't bother with a BM_VALID test (the caller could check that for
 * itself).
 *
 * Also all callers only ever use this function when it's known that the
 * buffer can't have a preexisting pin by this backend. That allows us to skip
 * searching the private refcount array & hash, which is a boon, because the
 * spinlock is still held.
 *
 * Note: use of this routine is frequently mandatory, not just an optimization
 * to save a spin lock/unlock cycle, because we need to pin a buffer before
 * its state can change under us.
 */
static void
PinBuffer_Locked(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	Buffer		b;
	PrivateRefCountEntry *ref;
	uint32		buf_state;

	/*
	 * As explained, We don't expect any preexisting pins. That allows us to
	 * manipulate the PrivateRefCount after releasing the spinlock
	 */
	Assert(GetPrivateRefCountEntry(BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf), false) == NULL);

	/*
	 * Buffer can't have a preexisting pin, so mark its page as defined to
	 * Valgrind (this is similar to the PinBuffer() case where the backend
	 * doesn't already have a buffer pin)
	 */
	VALGRIND_MAKE_MEM_DEFINED(BufHdrGetBlock(buf), BLCKSZ);

	/*
	 * Since we hold the buffer spinlock, we can update the buffer state and
	 * release the lock in one operation.
	 */
	buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);
	Assert(buf_state & BM_LOCKED);
	buf_state += BUF_REFCOUNT_ONE;
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);

	ref = NewPrivateRefCountEntry(b);
	ref->refcount++;

	ResourceOwnerRememberBuffer(CurrentResourceOwner, b);
}

/*
 * UnpinBuffer -- make buffer available for replacement.
 *
 * This should be applied only to shared buffers, never local ones.  This
 * always adjusts CurrentResourceOwner.
 */
static void
UnpinBuffer(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	Buffer		b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);

	ResourceOwnerForgetBuffer(CurrentResourceOwner, b);
	UnpinBufferNoOwner(buf);
}

static void
UnpinBufferNoOwner(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	PrivateRefCountEntry *ref;
	Buffer		b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);

	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(b));

	/* not moving as we're likely deleting it soon anyway */
	ref = GetPrivateRefCountEntry(b, false);
	Assert(ref != NULL);
	Assert(ref->refcount > 0);
	ref->refcount--;
	if (ref->refcount == 0)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;
		uint32		old_buf_state;

		/*
		 * Mark buffer non-accessible to Valgrind.
		 *
		 * Note that the buffer may have already been marked non-accessible
		 * within access method code that enforces that buffers are only
		 * accessed while a buffer lock is held.
		 */
		VALGRIND_MAKE_MEM_NOACCESS(BufHdrGetBlock(buf), BLCKSZ);

		/* I'd better not still hold the buffer content lock */
		Assert(!LWLockHeldByMe(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf)));

		/*
		 * Decrement the shared reference count.
		 *
		 * Since buffer spinlock holder can update status using just write,
		 * it's not safe to use atomic decrement here; thus use a CAS loop.
		 */
		old_buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);
		for (;;)
		{
			if (old_buf_state & BM_LOCKED)
				old_buf_state = WaitBufHdrUnlocked(buf);

			buf_state = old_buf_state;

			buf_state -= BUF_REFCOUNT_ONE;

			if (pg_atomic_compare_exchange_u32(&buf->state, &old_buf_state,
											   buf_state))
				break;
		}

		/* Support LockBufferForCleanup() */
		if (buf_state & BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER)
		{
			/*
			 * Acquire the buffer header lock, re-check that there's a waiter.
			 * Another backend could have unpinned this buffer, and already
			 * woken up the waiter.  There's no danger of the buffer being
			 * replaced after we unpinned it above, as it's pinned by the
			 * waiter.
			 */
			buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

			if ((buf_state & BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER) &&
				BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 1)
			{
				/* we just released the last pin other than the waiter's */
				int			wait_backend_pgprocno = buf->wait_backend_pgprocno;

				buf_state &= ~BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER;
				UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
				ProcSendSignal(wait_backend_pgprocno);
			}
			else
				UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
		}
		ForgetPrivateRefCountEntry(ref);
	}
}

#define ST_SORT sort_checkpoint_bufferids
#define ST_ELEMENT_TYPE CkptSortItem
#define ST_COMPARE(a, b) ckpt_buforder_comparator(a, b)
#define ST_SCOPE static
#define ST_DEFINE
#include <lib/sort_template.h>

/*
 * BufferSync -- Write out all dirty buffers in the pool.
 *
 * This is called at checkpoint time to write out all dirty shared buffers.
 * The checkpoint request flags should be passed in.  If CHECKPOINT_IMMEDIATE
 * is set, we disable delays between writes; if CHECKPOINT_IS_SHUTDOWN,
 * CHECKPOINT_END_OF_RECOVERY or CHECKPOINT_FLUSH_ALL is set, we write even
 * unlogged buffers, which are otherwise skipped.  The remaining flags
 * currently have no effect here.
 */
static void
BufferSync(int flags)
{
	uint32		buf_state;
	int			buf_id;
	int			num_to_scan;
	int			num_spaces;
	int			num_processed;
	int			num_written;
	CkptTsStatus *per_ts_stat = NULL;
	Oid			last_tsid;
	binaryheap *ts_heap;
	int			i;
	int			mask = BM_DIRTY;
	WritebackContext wb_context;

	/*
	 * Unless this is a shutdown checkpoint or we have been explicitly told,
	 * we write only permanent, dirty buffers.  But at shutdown or end of
	 * recovery, we write all dirty buffers.
	 */
	if (!((flags & (CHECKPOINT_IS_SHUTDOWN | CHECKPOINT_END_OF_RECOVERY |
					CHECKPOINT_FLUSH_ALL))))
		mask |= BM_PERMANENT;

	/*
	 * Loop over all buffers, and mark the ones that need to be written with
	 * BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED.  Count them as we go (num_to_scan), so that we
	 * can estimate how much work needs to be done.
	 *
	 * This allows us to write only those pages that were dirty when the
	 * checkpoint began, and not those that get dirtied while it proceeds.
	 * Whenever a page with BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED is written out, either by us
	 * later in this function, or by normal backends or the bgwriter cleaning
	 * scan, the flag is cleared.  Any buffer dirtied after this point won't
	 * have the flag set.
	 *
	 * Note that if we fail to write some buffer, we may leave buffers with
	 * BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED still set.  This is OK since any such buffer would
	 * certainly need to be written for the next checkpoint attempt, too.
	 */
	num_to_scan = 0;
	for (buf_id = 0; buf_id < NBuffers; buf_id++)
	{
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buf_id);

		/*
		 * Header spinlock is enough to examine BM_DIRTY, see comment in
		 * SyncOneBuffer.
		 */
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		if ((buf_state & mask) == mask)
		{
			CkptSortItem *item;

			buf_state |= BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED;

			item = &CkptBufferIds[num_to_scan++];
			item->buf_id = buf_id;
			item->tsId = bufHdr->tag.spcOid;
			item->relNumber = BufTagGetRelNumber(&bufHdr->tag);
			item->forkNum = BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag);
			item->blockNum = bufHdr->tag.blockNum;
		}

		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);

		/* Check for barrier events in case NBuffers is large. */
		if (ProcSignalBarrierPending)
			ProcessProcSignalBarrier();
	}

	if (num_to_scan == 0)
		return;					/* nothing to do */

	WritebackContextInit(&wb_context, &checkpoint_flush_after);

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_SYNC_START(NBuffers, num_to_scan);

	/*
	 * Sort buffers that need to be written to reduce the likelihood of random
	 * IO. The sorting is also important for the implementation of balancing
	 * writes between tablespaces. Without balancing writes we'd potentially
	 * end up writing to the tablespaces one-by-one; possibly overloading the
	 * underlying system.
	 */
	sort_checkpoint_bufferids(CkptBufferIds, num_to_scan);

	num_spaces = 0;

	/*
	 * Allocate progress status for each tablespace with buffers that need to
	 * be flushed. This requires the to-be-flushed array to be sorted.
	 */
	last_tsid = InvalidOid;
	for (i = 0; i < num_to_scan; i++)
	{
		CkptTsStatus *s;
		Oid			cur_tsid;

		cur_tsid = CkptBufferIds[i].tsId;

		/*
		 * Grow array of per-tablespace status structs, every time a new
		 * tablespace is found.
		 */
		if (last_tsid == InvalidOid || last_tsid != cur_tsid)
		{
			Size		sz;

			num_spaces++;

			/*
			 * Not worth adding grow-by-power-of-2 logic here - even with a
			 * few hundred tablespaces this should be fine.
			 */
			sz = sizeof(CkptTsStatus) * num_spaces;

			if (per_ts_stat == NULL)
				per_ts_stat = (CkptTsStatus *) palloc(sz);
			else
				per_ts_stat = (CkptTsStatus *) repalloc(per_ts_stat, sz);

			s = &per_ts_stat[num_spaces - 1];
			memset(s, 0, sizeof(*s));
			s->tsId = cur_tsid;

			/*
			 * The first buffer in this tablespace. As CkptBufferIds is sorted
			 * by tablespace all (s->num_to_scan) buffers in this tablespace
			 * will follow afterwards.
			 */
			s->index = i;

			/*
			 * progress_slice will be determined once we know how many buffers
			 * are in each tablespace, i.e. after this loop.
			 */

			last_tsid = cur_tsid;
		}
		else
		{
			s = &per_ts_stat[num_spaces - 1];
		}

		s->num_to_scan++;

		/* Check for barrier events. */
		if (ProcSignalBarrierPending)
			ProcessProcSignalBarrier();
	}

	Assert(num_spaces > 0);

	/*
	 * Build a min-heap over the write-progress in the individual tablespaces,
	 * and compute how large a portion of the total progress a single
	 * processed buffer is.
	 */
	ts_heap = binaryheap_allocate(num_spaces,
								  ts_ckpt_progress_comparator,
								  false,
								  NULL);

	for (i = 0; i < num_spaces; i++)
	{
		CkptTsStatus *ts_stat = &per_ts_stat[i];

		ts_stat->progress_slice = (float8) num_to_scan / ts_stat->num_to_scan;

		binaryheap_add_unordered(ts_heap, PointerGetDatum(ts_stat));
	}

	binaryheap_build(ts_heap);

	/*
	 * Iterate through to-be-checkpointed buffers and write the ones (still)
	 * marked with BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED. The writes are balanced between
	 * tablespaces; otherwise the sorting would lead to only one tablespace
	 * receiving writes at a time, making inefficient use of the hardware.
	 */
	num_processed = 0;
	num_written = 0;
	while (!binaryheap_empty(ts_heap))
	{
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = NULL;
		CkptTsStatus *ts_stat = (CkptTsStatus *)
			DatumGetPointer(binaryheap_first(ts_heap));

		buf_id = CkptBufferIds[ts_stat->index].buf_id;
		Assert(buf_id != -1);

		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buf_id);

		num_processed++;

		/*
		 * We don't need to acquire the lock here, because we're only looking
		 * at a single bit. It's possible that someone else writes the buffer
		 * and clears the flag right after we check, but that doesn't matter
		 * since SyncOneBuffer will then do nothing.  However, there is a
		 * further race condition: it's conceivable that between the time we
		 * examine the bit here and the time SyncOneBuffer acquires the lock,
		 * someone else not only wrote the buffer but replaced it with another
		 * page and dirtied it.  In that improbable case, SyncOneBuffer will
		 * write the buffer though we didn't need to.  It doesn't seem worth
		 * guarding against this, though.
		 */
		if (pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED)
		{
			if (SyncOneBuffer(buf_id, false, &wb_context) & BUF_WRITTEN)
			{
				TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_SYNC_WRITTEN(buf_id);
				PendingCheckpointerStats.buffers_written++;
				num_written++;
			}
		}

		/*
		 * Measure progress independent of actually having to flush the buffer
		 * - otherwise writing become unbalanced.
		 */
		ts_stat->progress += ts_stat->progress_slice;
		ts_stat->num_scanned++;
		ts_stat->index++;

		/* Have all the buffers from the tablespace been processed? */
		if (ts_stat->num_scanned == ts_stat->num_to_scan)
		{
			binaryheap_remove_first(ts_heap);
		}
		else
		{
			/* update heap with the new progress */
			binaryheap_replace_first(ts_heap, PointerGetDatum(ts_stat));
		}

		/*
		 * Sleep to throttle our I/O rate.
		 *
		 * (This will check for barrier events even if it doesn't sleep.)
		 */
		CheckpointWriteDelay(flags, (double) num_processed / num_to_scan);
	}

	/*
	 * Issue all pending flushes. Only checkpointer calls BufferSync(), so
	 * IOContext will always be IOCONTEXT_NORMAL.
	 */
	IssuePendingWritebacks(&wb_context, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);

	pfree(per_ts_stat);
	per_ts_stat = NULL;
	binaryheap_free(ts_heap);

	/*
	 * Update checkpoint statistics. As noted above, this doesn't include
	 * buffers written by other backends or bgwriter scan.
	 */
	CheckpointStats.ckpt_bufs_written += num_written;

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_SYNC_DONE(NBuffers, num_written, num_to_scan);
}

/*
 * BgBufferSync -- Write out some dirty buffers in the pool.
 *
 * This is called periodically by the background writer process.
 *
 * Returns true if it's appropriate for the bgwriter process to go into
 * low-power hibernation mode.  (This happens if the strategy clock sweep
 * has been "lapped" and no buffer allocations have occurred recently,
 * or if the bgwriter has been effectively disabled by setting
 * bgwriter_lru_maxpages to 0.)
 */
bool
BgBufferSync(WritebackContext *wb_context)
{
	/* info obtained from freelist.c */
	int			strategy_buf_id;
	uint32		strategy_passes;
	uint32		recent_alloc;

	/*
	 * Information saved between calls so we can determine the strategy
	 * point's advance rate and avoid scanning already-cleaned buffers.
	 */
	static bool saved_info_valid = false;
	static int	prev_strategy_buf_id;
	static uint32 prev_strategy_passes;
	static int	next_to_clean;
	static uint32 next_passes;

	/* Moving averages of allocation rate and clean-buffer density */
	static float smoothed_alloc = 0;
	static float smoothed_density = 10.0;

	/* Potentially these could be tunables, but for now, not */
	float		smoothing_samples = 16;
	float		scan_whole_pool_milliseconds = 120000.0;

	/* Used to compute how far we scan ahead */
	long		strategy_delta;
	int			bufs_to_lap;
	int			bufs_ahead;
	float		scans_per_alloc;
	int			reusable_buffers_est;
	int			upcoming_alloc_est;
	int			min_scan_buffers;

	/* Variables for the scanning loop proper */
	int			num_to_scan;
	int			num_written;
	int			reusable_buffers;

	/* Variables for final smoothed_density update */
	long		new_strategy_delta;
	uint32		new_recent_alloc;

	/*
	 * Find out where the freelist clock sweep currently is, and how many
	 * buffer allocations have happened since our last call.
	 */
	strategy_buf_id = StrategySyncStart(&strategy_passes, &recent_alloc);

	/* Report buffer alloc counts to pgstat */
	PendingBgWriterStats.buf_alloc += recent_alloc;

	/*
	 * If we're not running the LRU scan, just stop after doing the stats
	 * stuff.  We mark the saved state invalid so that we can recover sanely
	 * if LRU scan is turned back on later.
	 */
	if (bgwriter_lru_maxpages <= 0)
	{
		saved_info_valid = false;
		return true;
	}

	/*
	 * Compute strategy_delta = how many buffers have been scanned by the
	 * clock sweep since last time.  If first time through, assume none. Then
	 * see if we are still ahead of the clock sweep, and if so, how many
	 * buffers we could scan before we'd catch up with it and "lap" it. Note:
	 * weird-looking coding of xxx_passes comparisons are to avoid bogus
	 * behavior when the passes counts wrap around.
	 */
	if (saved_info_valid)
	{
		int32		passes_delta = strategy_passes - prev_strategy_passes;

		strategy_delta = strategy_buf_id - prev_strategy_buf_id;
		strategy_delta += (long) passes_delta * NBuffers;

		Assert(strategy_delta >= 0);

		if ((int32) (next_passes - strategy_passes) > 0)
		{
			/* we're one pass ahead of the strategy point */
			bufs_to_lap = strategy_buf_id - next_to_clean;
#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
			elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter ahead: bgw %u-%u strategy %u-%u delta=%ld lap=%d",
				 next_passes, next_to_clean,
				 strategy_passes, strategy_buf_id,
				 strategy_delta, bufs_to_lap);
#endif
		}
		else if (next_passes == strategy_passes &&
				 next_to_clean >= strategy_buf_id)
		{
			/* on same pass, but ahead or at least not behind */
			bufs_to_lap = NBuffers - (next_to_clean - strategy_buf_id);
#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
			elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter ahead: bgw %u-%u strategy %u-%u delta=%ld lap=%d",
				 next_passes, next_to_clean,
				 strategy_passes, strategy_buf_id,
				 strategy_delta, bufs_to_lap);
#endif
		}
		else
		{
			/*
			 * We're behind, so skip forward to the strategy point and start
			 * cleaning from there.
			 */
#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
			elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter behind: bgw %u-%u strategy %u-%u delta=%ld",
				 next_passes, next_to_clean,
				 strategy_passes, strategy_buf_id,
				 strategy_delta);
#endif
			next_to_clean = strategy_buf_id;
			next_passes = strategy_passes;
			bufs_to_lap = NBuffers;
		}
	}
	else
	{
		/*
		 * Initializing at startup or after LRU scanning had been off. Always
		 * start at the strategy point.
		 */
#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
		elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter initializing: strategy %u-%u",
			 strategy_passes, strategy_buf_id);
#endif
		strategy_delta = 0;
		next_to_clean = strategy_buf_id;
		next_passes = strategy_passes;
		bufs_to_lap = NBuffers;
	}

	/* Update saved info for next time */
	prev_strategy_buf_id = strategy_buf_id;
	prev_strategy_passes = strategy_passes;
	saved_info_valid = true;

	/*
	 * Compute how many buffers had to be scanned for each new allocation, ie,
	 * 1/density of reusable buffers, and track a moving average of that.
	 *
	 * If the strategy point didn't move, we don't update the density estimate
	 */
	if (strategy_delta > 0 && recent_alloc > 0)
	{
		scans_per_alloc = (float) strategy_delta / (float) recent_alloc;
		smoothed_density += (scans_per_alloc - smoothed_density) /
			smoothing_samples;
	}

	/*
	 * Estimate how many reusable buffers there are between the current
	 * strategy point and where we've scanned ahead to, based on the smoothed
	 * density estimate.
	 */
	bufs_ahead = NBuffers - bufs_to_lap;
	reusable_buffers_est = (float) bufs_ahead / smoothed_density;

	/*
	 * Track a moving average of recent buffer allocations.  Here, rather than
	 * a true average we want a fast-attack, slow-decline behavior: we
	 * immediately follow any increase.
	 */
	if (smoothed_alloc <= (float) recent_alloc)
		smoothed_alloc = recent_alloc;
	else
		smoothed_alloc += ((float) recent_alloc - smoothed_alloc) /
			smoothing_samples;

	/* Scale the estimate by a GUC to allow more aggressive tuning. */
	upcoming_alloc_est = (int) (smoothed_alloc * bgwriter_lru_multiplier);

	/*
	 * If recent_alloc remains at zero for many cycles, smoothed_alloc will
	 * eventually underflow to zero, and the underflows produce annoying
	 * kernel warnings on some platforms.  Once upcoming_alloc_est has gone to
	 * zero, there's no point in tracking smaller and smaller values of
	 * smoothed_alloc, so just reset it to exactly zero to avoid this
	 * syndrome.  It will pop back up as soon as recent_alloc increases.
	 */
	if (upcoming_alloc_est == 0)
		smoothed_alloc = 0;

	/*
	 * Even in cases where there's been little or no buffer allocation
	 * activity, we want to make a small amount of progress through the buffer
	 * cache so that as many reusable buffers as possible are clean after an
	 * idle period.
	 *
	 * (scan_whole_pool_milliseconds / BgWriterDelay) computes how many times
	 * the BGW will be called during the scan_whole_pool time; slice the
	 * buffer pool into that many sections.
	 */
	min_scan_buffers = (int) (NBuffers / (scan_whole_pool_milliseconds / BgWriterDelay));

	if (upcoming_alloc_est < (min_scan_buffers + reusable_buffers_est))
	{
#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
		elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter: alloc_est=%d too small, using min=%d + reusable_est=%d",
			 upcoming_alloc_est, min_scan_buffers, reusable_buffers_est);
#endif
		upcoming_alloc_est = min_scan_buffers + reusable_buffers_est;
	}

	/*
	 * Now write out dirty reusable buffers, working forward from the
	 * next_to_clean point, until we have lapped the strategy scan, or cleaned
	 * enough buffers to match our estimate of the next cycle's allocation
	 * requirements, or hit the bgwriter_lru_maxpages limit.
	 */

	num_to_scan = bufs_to_lap;
	num_written = 0;
	reusable_buffers = reusable_buffers_est;

	/* Execute the LRU scan */
	while (num_to_scan > 0 && reusable_buffers < upcoming_alloc_est)
	{
		int			sync_state = SyncOneBuffer(next_to_clean, true,
											   wb_context);

		if (++next_to_clean >= NBuffers)
		{
			next_to_clean = 0;
			next_passes++;
		}
		num_to_scan--;

		if (sync_state & BUF_WRITTEN)
		{
			reusable_buffers++;
			if (++num_written >= bgwriter_lru_maxpages)
			{
				PendingBgWriterStats.maxwritten_clean++;
				break;
			}
		}
		else if (sync_state & BUF_REUSABLE)
			reusable_buffers++;
	}

	PendingBgWriterStats.buf_written_clean += num_written;

#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
	elog(DEBUG1, "bgwriter: recent_alloc=%u smoothed=%.2f delta=%ld ahead=%d density=%.2f reusable_est=%d upcoming_est=%d scanned=%d wrote=%d reusable=%d",
		 recent_alloc, smoothed_alloc, strategy_delta, bufs_ahead,
		 smoothed_density, reusable_buffers_est, upcoming_alloc_est,
		 bufs_to_lap - num_to_scan,
		 num_written,
		 reusable_buffers - reusable_buffers_est);
#endif

	/*
	 * Consider the above scan as being like a new allocation scan.
	 * Characterize its density and update the smoothed one based on it. This
	 * effectively halves the moving average period in cases where both the
	 * strategy and the background writer are doing some useful scanning,
	 * which is helpful because a long memory isn't as desirable on the
	 * density estimates.
	 */
	new_strategy_delta = bufs_to_lap - num_to_scan;
	new_recent_alloc = reusable_buffers - reusable_buffers_est;
	if (new_strategy_delta > 0 && new_recent_alloc > 0)
	{
		scans_per_alloc = (float) new_strategy_delta / (float) new_recent_alloc;
		smoothed_density += (scans_per_alloc - smoothed_density) /
			smoothing_samples;

#ifdef BGW_DEBUG
		elog(DEBUG2, "bgwriter: cleaner density alloc=%u scan=%ld density=%.2f new smoothed=%.2f",
			 new_recent_alloc, new_strategy_delta,
			 scans_per_alloc, smoothed_density);
#endif
	}

	/* Return true if OK to hibernate */
	return (bufs_to_lap == 0 && recent_alloc == 0);
}

/*
 * SyncOneBuffer -- process a single buffer during syncing.
 *
 * If skip_recently_used is true, we don't write currently-pinned buffers, nor
 * buffers marked recently used, as these are not replacement candidates.
 *
 * Returns a bitmask containing the following flag bits:
 *	BUF_WRITTEN: we wrote the buffer.
 *	BUF_REUSABLE: buffer is available for replacement, ie, it has
 *		pin count 0 and usage count 0.
 *
 * (BUF_WRITTEN could be set in error if FlushBuffer finds the buffer clean
 * after locking it, but we don't care all that much.)
 */
static int
SyncOneBuffer(int buf_id, bool skip_recently_used, WritebackContext *wb_context)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buf_id);
	int			result = 0;
	uint32		buf_state;
	BufferTag	tag;

	/* Make sure we can handle the pin */
	ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

	/*
	 * Check whether buffer needs writing.
	 *
	 * We can make this check without taking the buffer content lock so long
	 * as we mark pages dirty in access methods *before* logging changes with
	 * XLogInsert(): if someone marks the buffer dirty just after our check we
	 * don't worry because our checkpoint.redo points before log record for
	 * upcoming changes and so we are not required to write such dirty buffer.
	 */
	buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

	if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 0 &&
		BUF_STATE_GET_USAGECOUNT(buf_state) == 0)
	{
		result |= BUF_REUSABLE;
	}
	else if (skip_recently_used)
	{
		/* Caller told us not to write recently-used buffers */
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
		return result;
	}

	if (!(buf_state & BM_VALID) || !(buf_state & BM_DIRTY))
	{
		/* It's clean, so nothing to do */
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
		return result;
	}

	/*
	 * Pin it, share-lock it, write it.  (FlushBuffer will do nothing if the
	 * buffer is clean by the time we've locked it.)
	 */
	PinBuffer_Locked(bufHdr);
	LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr), LW_SHARED);

	FlushBuffer(bufHdr, NULL, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);

	LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr));

	tag = bufHdr->tag;

	UnpinBuffer(bufHdr);

	/*
	 * SyncOneBuffer() is only called by checkpointer and bgwriter, so
	 * IOContext will always be IOCONTEXT_NORMAL.
	 */
	ScheduleBufferTagForWriteback(wb_context, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL, &tag);

	return result | BUF_WRITTEN;
}

/*
 *		AtEOXact_Buffers - clean up at end of transaction.
 *
 *		As of PostgreSQL 8.0, buffer pins should get released by the
 *		ResourceOwner mechanism.  This routine is just a debugging
 *		cross-check that no pins remain.
 */
void
AtEOXact_Buffers(bool isCommit)
{
	CheckForBufferLeaks();

	AtEOXact_LocalBuffers(isCommit);

	Assert(PrivateRefCountOverflowed == 0);
}

/*
 * Initialize access to shared buffer pool
 *
 * This is called during backend startup (whether standalone or under the
 * postmaster).  It sets up for this backend's access to the already-existing
 * buffer pool.
 */
void
InitBufferPoolAccess(void)
{
	HASHCTL		hash_ctl;

	memset(&PrivateRefCountArray, 0, sizeof(PrivateRefCountArray));

	hash_ctl.keysize = sizeof(int32);
	hash_ctl.entrysize = sizeof(PrivateRefCountEntry);

	PrivateRefCountHash = hash_create("PrivateRefCount", 100, &hash_ctl,
									  HASH_ELEM | HASH_BLOBS);

	/*
	 * AtProcExit_Buffers needs LWLock access, and thereby has to be called at
	 * the corresponding phase of backend shutdown.
	 */
	Assert(MyProc != NULL);
	on_shmem_exit(AtProcExit_Buffers, 0);
}

/*
 * During backend exit, ensure that we released all shared-buffer locks and
 * assert that we have no remaining pins.
 */
static void
AtProcExit_Buffers(int code, Datum arg)
{
	UnlockBuffers();

	CheckForBufferLeaks();

	/* localbuf.c needs a chance too */
	AtProcExit_LocalBuffers();
}

/*
 *		CheckForBufferLeaks - ensure this backend holds no buffer pins
 *
 *		As of PostgreSQL 8.0, buffer pins should get released by the
 *		ResourceOwner mechanism.  This routine is just a debugging
 *		cross-check that no pins remain.
 */
static void
CheckForBufferLeaks(void)
{
#ifdef USE_ASSERT_CHECKING
	int			RefCountErrors = 0;
	PrivateRefCountEntry *res;
	int			i;
	char	   *s;

	/* check the array */
	for (i = 0; i < REFCOUNT_ARRAY_ENTRIES; i++)
	{
		res = &PrivateRefCountArray[i];

		if (res->buffer != InvalidBuffer)
		{
			s = DebugPrintBufferRefcount(res->buffer);
			elog(WARNING, "buffer refcount leak: %s", s);
			pfree(s);

			RefCountErrors++;
		}
	}

	/* if necessary search the hash */
	if (PrivateRefCountOverflowed)
	{
		HASH_SEQ_STATUS hstat;

		hash_seq_init(&hstat, PrivateRefCountHash);
		while ((res = (PrivateRefCountEntry *) hash_seq_search(&hstat)) != NULL)
		{
			s = DebugPrintBufferRefcount(res->buffer);
			elog(WARNING, "buffer refcount leak: %s", s);
			pfree(s);
			RefCountErrors++;
		}
	}

	Assert(RefCountErrors == 0);
#endif
}

/*
 * Helper routine to issue warnings when a buffer is unexpectedly pinned
 */
char *
DebugPrintBufferRefcount(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *buf;
	int32		loccount;
	char	   *path;
	char	   *result;
	ProcNumber	backend;
	uint32		buf_state;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		buf = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);
		loccount = LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1];
		backend = MyProcNumber;
	}
	else
	{
		buf = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
		loccount = GetPrivateRefCount(buffer);
		backend = INVALID_PROC_NUMBER;
	}

	/* theoretically we should lock the bufhdr here */
	path = relpathbackend(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&buf->tag), backend,
						  BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag));
	buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);

	result = psprintf("[%03d] (rel=%s, blockNum=%u, flags=0x%x, refcount=%u %d)",
					  buffer, path,
					  buf->tag.blockNum, buf_state & BUF_FLAG_MASK,
					  BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state), loccount);
	pfree(path);
	return result;
}

/*
 * CheckPointBuffers
 *
 * Flush all dirty blocks in buffer pool to disk at checkpoint time.
 *
 * Note: temporary relations do not participate in checkpoints, so they don't
 * need to be flushed.
 */
void
CheckPointBuffers(int flags)
{
	BufferSync(flags);
}

/*
 * BufferGetBlockNumber
 *		Returns the block number associated with a buffer.
 *
 * Note:
 *		Assumes that the buffer is valid and pinned, else the
 *		value may be obsolete immediately...
 */
BlockNumber
BufferGetBlockNumber(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);
	else
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	/* pinned, so OK to read tag without spinlock */
	return bufHdr->tag.blockNum;
}

/*
 * BufferGetTag
 *		Returns the relfilelocator, fork number and block number associated with
 *		a buffer.
 */
void
BufferGetTag(Buffer buffer, RelFileLocator *rlocator, ForkNumber *forknum,
			 BlockNumber *blknum)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	/* Do the same checks as BufferGetBlockNumber. */
	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(-buffer - 1);
	else
		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	/* pinned, so OK to read tag without spinlock */
	*rlocator = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag);
	*forknum = BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag);
	*blknum = bufHdr->tag.blockNum;
}

/*
 * FlushBuffer
 *		Physically write out a shared buffer.
 *
 * NOTE: this actually just passes the buffer contents to the kernel; the
 * real write to disk won't happen until the kernel feels like it.  This
 * is okay from our point of view since we can redo the changes from WAL.
 * However, we will need to force the changes to disk via fsync before
 * we can checkpoint WAL.
 *
 * The caller must hold a pin on the buffer and have share-locked the
 * buffer contents.  (Note: a share-lock does not prevent updates of
 * hint bits in the buffer, so the page could change while the write
 * is in progress, but we assume that that will not invalidate the data
 * written.)
 *
 * If the caller has an smgr reference for the buffer's relation, pass it
 * as the second parameter.  If not, pass NULL.
 */
static void
FlushBuffer(BufferDesc *buf, SMgrRelation reln, IOObject io_object,
			IOContext io_context)
{
	XLogRecPtr	recptr;
	ErrorContextCallback errcallback;
	instr_time	io_start;
	Block		bufBlock;
	char	   *bufToWrite;
	uint32		buf_state;

	/*
	 * Try to start an I/O operation.  If StartBufferIO returns false, then
	 * someone else flushed the buffer before we could, so we need not do
	 * anything.
	 */
	if (!StartBufferIO(buf, false, false))
		return;

	/* Setup error traceback support for ereport() */
	errcallback.callback = shared_buffer_write_error_callback;
	errcallback.arg = (void *) buf;
	errcallback.previous = error_context_stack;
	error_context_stack = &errcallback;

	/* Find smgr relation for buffer */
	if (reln == NULL)
		reln = smgropen(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&buf->tag), INVALID_PROC_NUMBER);

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_FLUSH_START(BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag),
										buf->tag.blockNum,
										reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
										reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
										reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber);

	buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

	/*
	 * Run PageGetLSN while holding header lock, since we don't have the
	 * buffer locked exclusively in all cases.
	 */
	recptr = BufferGetLSN(buf);

	/* To check if block content changes while flushing. - vadim 01/17/97 */
	buf_state &= ~BM_JUST_DIRTIED;
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	/*
	 * Force XLOG flush up to buffer's LSN.  This implements the basic WAL
	 * rule that log updates must hit disk before any of the data-file changes
	 * they describe do.
	 *
	 * However, this rule does not apply to unlogged relations, which will be
	 * lost after a crash anyway.  Most unlogged relation pages do not bear
	 * LSNs since we never emit WAL records for them, and therefore flushing
	 * up through the buffer LSN would be useless, but harmless.  However,
	 * GiST indexes use LSNs internally to track page-splits, and therefore
	 * unlogged GiST pages bear "fake" LSNs generated by
	 * GetFakeLSNForUnloggedRel.  It is unlikely but possible that the fake
	 * LSN counter could advance past the WAL insertion point; and if it did
	 * happen, attempting to flush WAL through that location would fail, with
	 * disastrous system-wide consequences.  To make sure that can't happen,
	 * skip the flush if the buffer isn't permanent.
	 */
	if (buf_state & BM_PERMANENT)
		XLogFlush(recptr);

	/*
	 * Now it's safe to write buffer to disk. Note that no one else should
	 * have been able to write it while we were busy with log flushing because
	 * only one process at a time can set the BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS bit.
	 */
	bufBlock = BufHdrGetBlock(buf);

	/*
	 * Update page checksum if desired.  Since we have only shared lock on the
	 * buffer, other processes might be updating hint bits in it, so we must
	 * copy the page to private storage if we do checksumming.
	 */
	bufToWrite = PageSetChecksumCopy((Page) bufBlock, buf->tag.blockNum);

	io_start = pgstat_prepare_io_time(track_io_timing);

	/*
	 * bufToWrite is either the shared buffer or a copy, as appropriate.
	 */
	smgrwrite(reln,
			  BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag),
			  buf->tag.blockNum,
			  bufToWrite,
			  false);

	/*
	 * When a strategy is in use, only flushes of dirty buffers already in the
	 * strategy ring are counted as strategy writes (IOCONTEXT
	 * [BULKREAD|BULKWRITE|VACUUM] IOOP_WRITE) for the purpose of IO
	 * statistics tracking.
	 *
	 * If a shared buffer initially added to the ring must be flushed before
	 * being used, this is counted as an IOCONTEXT_NORMAL IOOP_WRITE.
	 *
	 * If a shared buffer which was added to the ring later because the
	 * current strategy buffer is pinned or in use or because all strategy
	 * buffers were dirty and rejected (for BAS_BULKREAD operations only)
	 * requires flushing, this is counted as an IOCONTEXT_NORMAL IOOP_WRITE
	 * (from_ring will be false).
	 *
	 * When a strategy is not in use, the write can only be a "regular" write
	 * of a dirty shared buffer (IOCONTEXT_NORMAL IOOP_WRITE).
	 */
	pgstat_count_io_op_time(IOOBJECT_RELATION, io_context,
							IOOP_WRITE, io_start, 1);

	pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_written++;

	/*
	 * Mark the buffer as clean (unless BM_JUST_DIRTIED has become set) and
	 * end the BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS state.
	 */
	TerminateBufferIO(buf, true, 0, true);

	TRACE_POSTGRESQL_BUFFER_FLUSH_DONE(BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag),
									   buf->tag.blockNum,
									   reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.spcOid,
									   reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.dbOid,
									   reln->smgr_rlocator.locator.relNumber);

	/* Pop the error context stack */
	error_context_stack = errcallback.previous;
}

/*
 * RelationGetNumberOfBlocksInFork
 *		Determines the current number of pages in the specified relation fork.
 *
 * Note that the accuracy of the result will depend on the details of the
 * relation's storage. For builtin AMs it'll be accurate, but for external AMs
 * it might not be.
 */
BlockNumber
RelationGetNumberOfBlocksInFork(Relation relation, ForkNumber forkNum)
{
	if (RELKIND_HAS_TABLE_AM(relation->rd_rel->relkind))
	{
		/*
		 * Not every table AM uses BLCKSZ wide fixed size blocks. Therefore
		 * tableam returns the size in bytes - but for the purpose of this
		 * routine, we want the number of blocks. Therefore divide, rounding
		 * up.
		 */
		uint64		szbytes;

		szbytes = table_relation_size(relation, forkNum);

		return (szbytes + (BLCKSZ - 1)) / BLCKSZ;
	}
	else if (RELKIND_HAS_STORAGE(relation->rd_rel->relkind))
	{
		return smgrnblocks(RelationGetSmgr(relation), forkNum);
	}
	else
		Assert(false);

	return 0;					/* keep compiler quiet */
}

/*
 * BufferIsPermanent
 *		Determines whether a buffer will potentially still be around after
 *		a crash.  Caller must hold a buffer pin.
 */
bool
BufferIsPermanent(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	/* Local buffers are used only for temp relations. */
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		return false;

	/* Make sure we've got a real buffer, and that we hold a pin on it. */
	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));
	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));

	/*
	 * BM_PERMANENT can't be changed while we hold a pin on the buffer, so we
	 * need not bother with the buffer header spinlock.  Even if someone else
	 * changes the buffer header state while we're doing this, the state is
	 * changed atomically, so we'll read the old value or the new value, but
	 * not random garbage.
	 */
	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	return (pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & BM_PERMANENT) != 0;
}

/*
 * BufferGetLSNAtomic
 *		Retrieves the LSN of the buffer atomically using a buffer header lock.
 *		This is necessary for some callers who may not have an exclusive lock
 *		on the buffer.
 */
XLogRecPtr
BufferGetLSNAtomic(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	char	   *page = BufferGetPage(buffer);
	XLogRecPtr	lsn;
	uint32		buf_state;

	/*
	 * If we don't need locking for correctness, fastpath out.
	 */
	if (!XLogHintBitIsNeeded() || BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		return PageGetLSN(page);

	/* Make sure we've got a real buffer, and that we hold a pin on it. */
	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));
	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));

	buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
	lsn = PageGetLSN(page);
	UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);

	return lsn;
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		DropRelationBuffers
 *
 *		This function removes from the buffer pool all the pages of the
 *		specified relation forks that have block numbers >= firstDelBlock.
 *		(In particular, with firstDelBlock = 0, all pages are removed.)
 *		Dirty pages are simply dropped, without bothering to write them
 *		out first.  Therefore, this is NOT rollback-able, and so should be
 *		used only with extreme caution!
 *
 *		Currently, this is called only from smgr.c when the underlying file
 *		is about to be deleted or truncated (firstDelBlock is needed for
 *		the truncation case).  The data in the affected pages would therefore
 *		be deleted momentarily anyway, and there is no point in writing it.
 *		It is the responsibility of higher-level code to ensure that the
 *		deletion or truncation does not lose any data that could be needed
 *		later.  It is also the responsibility of higher-level code to ensure
 *		that no other process could be trying to load more pages of the
 *		relation into buffers.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
DropRelationBuffers(SMgrRelation smgr_reln, ForkNumber *forkNum,
					int nforks, BlockNumber *firstDelBlock)
{
	int			i;
	int			j;
	RelFileLocatorBackend rlocator;
	BlockNumber nForkBlock[MAX_FORKNUM];
	uint64		nBlocksToInvalidate = 0;

	rlocator = smgr_reln->smgr_rlocator;

	/* If it's a local relation, it's localbuf.c's problem. */
	if (RelFileLocatorBackendIsTemp(rlocator))
	{
		if (rlocator.backend == MyProcNumber)
		{
			for (j = 0; j < nforks; j++)
				DropRelationLocalBuffers(rlocator.locator, forkNum[j],
										 firstDelBlock[j]);
		}
		return;
	}

	/*
	 * To remove all the pages of the specified relation forks from the buffer
	 * pool, we need to scan the entire buffer pool but we can optimize it by
	 * finding the buffers from BufMapping table provided we know the exact
	 * size of each fork of the relation. The exact size is required to ensure
	 * that we don't leave any buffer for the relation being dropped as
	 * otherwise the background writer or checkpointer can lead to a PANIC
	 * error while flushing buffers corresponding to files that don't exist.
	 *
	 * To know the exact size, we rely on the size cached for each fork by us
	 * during recovery which limits the optimization to recovery and on
	 * standbys but we can easily extend it once we have shared cache for
	 * relation size.
	 *
	 * In recovery, we cache the value returned by the first lseek(SEEK_END)
	 * and the future writes keeps the cached value up-to-date. See
	 * smgrextend. It is possible that the value of the first lseek is smaller
	 * than the actual number of existing blocks in the file due to buggy
	 * Linux kernels that might not have accounted for the recent write. But
	 * that should be fine because there must not be any buffers after that
	 * file size.
	 */
	for (i = 0; i < nforks; i++)
	{
		/* Get the number of blocks for a relation's fork */
		nForkBlock[i] = smgrnblocks_cached(smgr_reln, forkNum[i]);

		if (nForkBlock[i] == InvalidBlockNumber)
		{
			nBlocksToInvalidate = InvalidBlockNumber;
			break;
		}

		/* calculate the number of blocks to be invalidated */
		nBlocksToInvalidate += (nForkBlock[i] - firstDelBlock[i]);
	}

	/*
	 * We apply the optimization iff the total number of blocks to invalidate
	 * is below the BUF_DROP_FULL_SCAN_THRESHOLD.
	 */
	if (BlockNumberIsValid(nBlocksToInvalidate) &&
		nBlocksToInvalidate < BUF_DROP_FULL_SCAN_THRESHOLD)
	{
		for (j = 0; j < nforks; j++)
			FindAndDropRelationBuffers(rlocator.locator, forkNum[j],
									   nForkBlock[j], firstDelBlock[j]);
		return;
	}

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * We can make this a tad faster by prechecking the buffer tag before
		 * we attempt to lock the buffer; this saves a lot of lock
		 * acquisitions in typical cases.  It should be safe because the
		 * caller must have AccessExclusiveLock on the relation, or some other
		 * reason to be certain that no one is loading new pages of the rel
		 * into the buffer pool.  (Otherwise we might well miss such pages
		 * entirely.)  Therefore, while the tag might be changing while we
		 * look at it, it can't be changing *to* a value we care about, only
		 * *away* from such a value.  So false negatives are impossible, and
		 * false positives are safe because we'll recheck after getting the
		 * buffer lock.
		 *
		 * We could check forkNum and blockNum as well as the rlocator, but
		 * the incremental win from doing so seems small.
		 */
		if (!BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rlocator.locator))
			continue;

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		for (j = 0; j < nforks; j++)
		{
			if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rlocator.locator) &&
				BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag) == forkNum[j] &&
				bufHdr->tag.blockNum >= firstDelBlock[j])
			{
				InvalidateBuffer(bufHdr);	/* releases spinlock */
				break;
			}
		}
		if (j >= nforks)
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		DropRelationsAllBuffers
 *
 *		This function removes from the buffer pool all the pages of all
 *		forks of the specified relations.  It's equivalent to calling
 *		DropRelationBuffers once per fork per relation with firstDelBlock = 0.
 *		--------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
DropRelationsAllBuffers(SMgrRelation *smgr_reln, int nlocators)
{
	int			i;
	int			n = 0;
	SMgrRelation *rels;
	BlockNumber (*block)[MAX_FORKNUM + 1];
	uint64		nBlocksToInvalidate = 0;
	RelFileLocator *locators;
	bool		cached = true;
	bool		use_bsearch;

	if (nlocators == 0)
		return;

	rels = palloc(sizeof(SMgrRelation) * nlocators);	/* non-local relations */

	/* If it's a local relation, it's localbuf.c's problem. */
	for (i = 0; i < nlocators; i++)
	{
		if (RelFileLocatorBackendIsTemp(smgr_reln[i]->smgr_rlocator))
		{
			if (smgr_reln[i]->smgr_rlocator.backend == MyProcNumber)
				DropRelationAllLocalBuffers(smgr_reln[i]->smgr_rlocator.locator);
		}
		else
			rels[n++] = smgr_reln[i];
	}

	/*
	 * If there are no non-local relations, then we're done. Release the
	 * memory and return.
	 */
	if (n == 0)
	{
		pfree(rels);
		return;
	}

	/*
	 * This is used to remember the number of blocks for all the relations
	 * forks.
	 */
	block = (BlockNumber (*)[MAX_FORKNUM + 1])
		palloc(sizeof(BlockNumber) * n * (MAX_FORKNUM + 1));

	/*
	 * We can avoid scanning the entire buffer pool if we know the exact size
	 * of each of the given relation forks. See DropRelationBuffers.
	 */
	for (i = 0; i < n && cached; i++)
	{
		for (int j = 0; j <= MAX_FORKNUM; j++)
		{
			/* Get the number of blocks for a relation's fork. */
			block[i][j] = smgrnblocks_cached(rels[i], j);

			/* We need to only consider the relation forks that exists. */
			if (block[i][j] == InvalidBlockNumber)
			{
				if (!smgrexists(rels[i], j))
					continue;
				cached = false;
				break;
			}

			/* calculate the total number of blocks to be invalidated */
			nBlocksToInvalidate += block[i][j];
		}
	}

	/*
	 * We apply the optimization iff the total number of blocks to invalidate
	 * is below the BUF_DROP_FULL_SCAN_THRESHOLD.
	 */
	if (cached && nBlocksToInvalidate < BUF_DROP_FULL_SCAN_THRESHOLD)
	{
		for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
		{
			for (int j = 0; j <= MAX_FORKNUM; j++)
			{
				/* ignore relation forks that doesn't exist */
				if (!BlockNumberIsValid(block[i][j]))
					continue;

				/* drop all the buffers for a particular relation fork */
				FindAndDropRelationBuffers(rels[i]->smgr_rlocator.locator,
										   j, block[i][j], 0);
			}
		}

		pfree(block);
		pfree(rels);
		return;
	}

	pfree(block);
	locators = palloc(sizeof(RelFileLocator) * n);	/* non-local relations */
	for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
		locators[i] = rels[i]->smgr_rlocator.locator;

	/*
	 * For low number of relations to drop just use a simple walk through, to
	 * save the bsearch overhead. The threshold to use is rather a guess than
	 * an exactly determined value, as it depends on many factors (CPU and RAM
	 * speeds, amount of shared buffers etc.).
	 */
	use_bsearch = n > RELS_BSEARCH_THRESHOLD;

	/* sort the list of rlocators if necessary */
	if (use_bsearch)
		qsort(locators, n, sizeof(RelFileLocator), rlocator_comparator);

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		RelFileLocator *rlocator = NULL;
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * As in DropRelationBuffers, an unlocked precheck should be safe and
		 * saves some cycles.
		 */

		if (!use_bsearch)
		{
			int			j;

			for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
			{
				if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &locators[j]))
				{
					rlocator = &locators[j];
					break;
				}
			}
		}
		else
		{
			RelFileLocator locator;

			locator = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag);
			rlocator = bsearch((const void *) &(locator),
							   locators, n, sizeof(RelFileLocator),
							   rlocator_comparator);
		}

		/* buffer doesn't belong to any of the given relfilelocators; skip it */
		if (rlocator == NULL)
			continue;

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, rlocator))
			InvalidateBuffer(bufHdr);	/* releases spinlock */
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}

	pfree(locators);
	pfree(rels);
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		FindAndDropRelationBuffers
 *
 *		This function performs look up in BufMapping table and removes from the
 *		buffer pool all the pages of the specified relation fork that has block
 *		number >= firstDelBlock. (In particular, with firstDelBlock = 0, all
 *		pages are removed.)
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
static void
FindAndDropRelationBuffers(RelFileLocator rlocator, ForkNumber forkNum,
						   BlockNumber nForkBlock,
						   BlockNumber firstDelBlock)
{
	BlockNumber curBlock;

	for (curBlock = firstDelBlock; curBlock < nForkBlock; curBlock++)
	{
		uint32		bufHash;	/* hash value for tag */
		BufferTag	bufTag;		/* identity of requested block */
		LWLock	   *bufPartitionLock;	/* buffer partition lock for it */
		int			buf_id;
		BufferDesc *bufHdr;
		uint32		buf_state;

		/* create a tag so we can lookup the buffer */
		InitBufferTag(&bufTag, &rlocator, forkNum, curBlock);

		/* determine its hash code and partition lock ID */
		bufHash = BufTableHashCode(&bufTag);
		bufPartitionLock = BufMappingPartitionLock(bufHash);

		/* Check that it is in the buffer pool. If not, do nothing. */
		LWLockAcquire(bufPartitionLock, LW_SHARED);
		buf_id = BufTableLookup(&bufTag, bufHash);
		LWLockRelease(bufPartitionLock);

		if (buf_id < 0)
			continue;

		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buf_id);

		/*
		 * We need to lock the buffer header and recheck if the buffer is
		 * still associated with the same block because the buffer could be
		 * evicted by some other backend loading blocks for a different
		 * relation after we release lock on the BufMapping table.
		 */
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rlocator) &&
			BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag) == forkNum &&
			bufHdr->tag.blockNum >= firstDelBlock)
			InvalidateBuffer(bufHdr);	/* releases spinlock */
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		DropDatabaseBuffers
 *
 *		This function removes all the buffers in the buffer cache for a
 *		particular database.  Dirty pages are simply dropped, without
 *		bothering to write them out first.  This is used when we destroy a
 *		database, to avoid trying to flush data to disk when the directory
 *		tree no longer exists.  Implementation is pretty similar to
 *		DropRelationBuffers() which is for destroying just one relation.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
DropDatabaseBuffers(Oid dbid)
{
	int			i;

	/*
	 * We needn't consider local buffers, since by assumption the target
	 * database isn't our own.
	 */

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * As in DropRelationBuffers, an unlocked precheck should be safe and
		 * saves some cycles.
		 */
		if (bufHdr->tag.dbOid != dbid)
			continue;

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if (bufHdr->tag.dbOid == dbid)
			InvalidateBuffer(bufHdr);	/* releases spinlock */
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/* -----------------------------------------------------------------
 *		PrintBufferDescs
 *
 *		this function prints all the buffer descriptors, for debugging
 *		use only.
 * -----------------------------------------------------------------
 */
#ifdef NOT_USED
void
PrintBufferDescs(void)
{
	int			i;

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; ++i)
	{
		BufferDesc *buf = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		Buffer		b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);

		/* theoretically we should lock the bufhdr here */
		elog(LOG,
			 "[%02d] (freeNext=%d, rel=%s, "
			 "blockNum=%u, flags=0x%x, refcount=%u %d)",
			 i, buf->freeNext,
			 relpathbackend(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&buf->tag),
							INVALID_PROC_NUMBER, BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag)),
			 buf->tag.blockNum, buf->flags,
			 buf->refcount, GetPrivateRefCount(b));
	}
}
#endif

#ifdef NOT_USED
void
PrintPinnedBufs(void)
{
	int			i;

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; ++i)
	{
		BufferDesc *buf = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		Buffer		b = BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf);

		if (GetPrivateRefCount(b) > 0)
		{
			/* theoretically we should lock the bufhdr here */
			elog(LOG,
				 "[%02d] (freeNext=%d, rel=%s, "
				 "blockNum=%u, flags=0x%x, refcount=%u %d)",
				 i, buf->freeNext,
				 relpathperm(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&buf->tag),
							 BufTagGetForkNum(&buf->tag)),
				 buf->tag.blockNum, buf->flags,
				 buf->refcount, GetPrivateRefCount(b));
		}
	}
}
#endif

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		FlushRelationBuffers
 *
 *		This function writes all dirty pages of a relation out to disk
 *		(or more accurately, out to kernel disk buffers), ensuring that the
 *		kernel has an up-to-date view of the relation.
 *
 *		Generally, the caller should be holding AccessExclusiveLock on the
 *		target relation to ensure that no other backend is busy dirtying
 *		more blocks of the relation; the effects can't be expected to last
 *		after the lock is released.
 *
 *		XXX currently it sequentially searches the buffer pool, should be
 *		changed to more clever ways of searching.  This routine is not
 *		used in any performance-critical code paths, so it's not worth
 *		adding additional overhead to normal paths to make it go faster.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
FlushRelationBuffers(Relation rel)
{
	int			i;
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	SMgrRelation srel = RelationGetSmgr(rel);

	if (RelationUsesLocalBuffers(rel))
	{
		for (i = 0; i < NLocBuffer; i++)
		{
			uint32		buf_state;
			instr_time	io_start;

			bufHdr = GetLocalBufferDescriptor(i);
			if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rel->rd_locator) &&
				((buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state)) &
				 (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY)) == (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY))
			{
				ErrorContextCallback errcallback;
				Page		localpage;

				localpage = (char *) LocalBufHdrGetBlock(bufHdr);

				/* Setup error traceback support for ereport() */
				errcallback.callback = local_buffer_write_error_callback;
				errcallback.arg = (void *) bufHdr;
				errcallback.previous = error_context_stack;
				error_context_stack = &errcallback;

				PageSetChecksumInplace(localpage, bufHdr->tag.blockNum);

				io_start = pgstat_prepare_io_time(track_io_timing);

				smgrwrite(srel,
						  BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag),
						  bufHdr->tag.blockNum,
						  localpage,
						  false);

				pgstat_count_io_op_time(IOOBJECT_TEMP_RELATION,
										IOCONTEXT_NORMAL, IOOP_WRITE,
										io_start, 1);

				buf_state &= ~(BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED);
				pg_atomic_unlocked_write_u32(&bufHdr->state, buf_state);

				pgBufferUsage.local_blks_written++;

				/* Pop the error context stack */
				error_context_stack = errcallback.previous;
			}
		}

		return;
	}

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;

		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);

		/*
		 * As in DropRelationBuffers, an unlocked precheck should be safe and
		 * saves some cycles.
		 */
		if (!BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rel->rd_locator))
			continue;

		/* Make sure we can handle the pin */
		ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
		ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &rel->rd_locator) &&
			(buf_state & (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY)) == (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY))
		{
			PinBuffer_Locked(bufHdr);
			LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr), LW_SHARED);
			FlushBuffer(bufHdr, srel, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);
			LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr));
			UnpinBuffer(bufHdr);
		}
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		FlushRelationsAllBuffers
 *
 *		This function flushes out of the buffer pool all the pages of all
 *		forks of the specified smgr relations.  It's equivalent to calling
 *		FlushRelationBuffers once per relation.  The relations are assumed not
 *		to use local buffers.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
FlushRelationsAllBuffers(SMgrRelation *smgrs, int nrels)
{
	int			i;
	SMgrSortArray *srels;
	bool		use_bsearch;

	if (nrels == 0)
		return;

	/* fill-in array for qsort */
	srels = palloc(sizeof(SMgrSortArray) * nrels);

	for (i = 0; i < nrels; i++)
	{
		Assert(!RelFileLocatorBackendIsTemp(smgrs[i]->smgr_rlocator));

		srels[i].rlocator = smgrs[i]->smgr_rlocator.locator;
		srels[i].srel = smgrs[i];
	}

	/*
	 * Save the bsearch overhead for low number of relations to sync. See
	 * DropRelationsAllBuffers for details.
	 */
	use_bsearch = nrels > RELS_BSEARCH_THRESHOLD;

	/* sort the list of SMgrRelations if necessary */
	if (use_bsearch)
		qsort(srels, nrels, sizeof(SMgrSortArray), rlocator_comparator);

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		SMgrSortArray *srelent = NULL;
		BufferDesc *bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * As in DropRelationBuffers, an unlocked precheck should be safe and
		 * saves some cycles.
		 */

		if (!use_bsearch)
		{
			int			j;

			for (j = 0; j < nrels; j++)
			{
				if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &srels[j].rlocator))
				{
					srelent = &srels[j];
					break;
				}
			}
		}
		else
		{
			RelFileLocator rlocator;

			rlocator = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag);
			srelent = bsearch((const void *) &(rlocator),
							  srels, nrels, sizeof(SMgrSortArray),
							  rlocator_comparator);
		}

		/* buffer doesn't belong to any of the given relfilelocators; skip it */
		if (srelent == NULL)
			continue;

		/* Make sure we can handle the pin */
		ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
		ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if (BufTagMatchesRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag, &srelent->rlocator) &&
			(buf_state & (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY)) == (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY))
		{
			PinBuffer_Locked(bufHdr);
			LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr), LW_SHARED);
			FlushBuffer(bufHdr, srelent->srel, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);
			LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr));
			UnpinBuffer(bufHdr);
		}
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}

	pfree(srels);
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		RelationCopyStorageUsingBuffer
 *
 *		Copy fork's data using bufmgr.  Same as RelationCopyStorage but instead
 *		of using smgrread and smgrextend this will copy using bufmgr APIs.
 *
 *		Refer comments atop CreateAndCopyRelationData() for details about
 *		'permanent' parameter.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
static void
RelationCopyStorageUsingBuffer(RelFileLocator srclocator,
							   RelFileLocator dstlocator,
							   ForkNumber forkNum, bool permanent)
{
	Buffer		srcBuf;
	Buffer		dstBuf;
	Page		srcPage;
	Page		dstPage;
	bool		use_wal;
	BlockNumber nblocks;
	BlockNumber blkno;
	PGIOAlignedBlock buf;
	BufferAccessStrategy bstrategy_src;
	BufferAccessStrategy bstrategy_dst;

	/*
	 * In general, we want to write WAL whenever wal_level > 'minimal', but we
	 * can skip it when copying any fork of an unlogged relation other than
	 * the init fork.
	 */
	use_wal = XLogIsNeeded() && (permanent || forkNum == INIT_FORKNUM);

	/* Get number of blocks in the source relation. */
	nblocks = smgrnblocks(smgropen(srclocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER),
						  forkNum);

	/* Nothing to copy; just return. */
	if (nblocks == 0)
		return;

	/*
	 * Bulk extend the destination relation of the same size as the source
	 * relation before starting to copy block by block.
	 */
	memset(buf.data, 0, BLCKSZ);
	smgrextend(smgropen(dstlocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER), forkNum, nblocks - 1,
			   buf.data, true);

	/* This is a bulk operation, so use buffer access strategies. */
	bstrategy_src = GetAccessStrategy(BAS_BULKREAD);
	bstrategy_dst = GetAccessStrategy(BAS_BULKWRITE);

	/* Iterate over each block of the source relation file. */
	for (blkno = 0; blkno < nblocks; blkno++)
	{
		CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();

		/* Read block from source relation. */
		srcBuf = ReadBufferWithoutRelcache(srclocator, forkNum, blkno,
										   RBM_NORMAL, bstrategy_src,
										   permanent);
		LockBuffer(srcBuf, BUFFER_LOCK_SHARE);
		srcPage = BufferGetPage(srcBuf);

		dstBuf = ReadBufferWithoutRelcache(dstlocator, forkNum, blkno,
										   RBM_ZERO_AND_LOCK, bstrategy_dst,
										   permanent);
		dstPage = BufferGetPage(dstBuf);

		START_CRIT_SECTION();

		/* Copy page data from the source to the destination. */
		memcpy(dstPage, srcPage, BLCKSZ);
		MarkBufferDirty(dstBuf);

		/* WAL-log the copied page. */
		if (use_wal)
			log_newpage_buffer(dstBuf, true);

		END_CRIT_SECTION();

		UnlockReleaseBuffer(dstBuf);
		UnlockReleaseBuffer(srcBuf);
	}

	FreeAccessStrategy(bstrategy_src);
	FreeAccessStrategy(bstrategy_dst);
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		CreateAndCopyRelationData
 *
 *		Create destination relation storage and copy all forks from the
 *		source relation to the destination.
 *
 *		Pass permanent as true for permanent relations and false for
 *		unlogged relations.  Currently this API is not supported for
 *		temporary relations.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
CreateAndCopyRelationData(RelFileLocator src_rlocator,
						  RelFileLocator dst_rlocator, bool permanent)
{
	char		relpersistence;
	SMgrRelation src_rel;
	SMgrRelation dst_rel;

	/* Set the relpersistence. */
	relpersistence = permanent ?
		RELPERSISTENCE_PERMANENT : RELPERSISTENCE_UNLOGGED;

	src_rel = smgropen(src_rlocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER);
	dst_rel = smgropen(dst_rlocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER);

	/*
	 * Create and copy all forks of the relation.  During create database we
	 * have a separate cleanup mechanism which deletes complete database
	 * directory.  Therefore, each individual relation doesn't need to be
	 * registered for cleanup.
	 */
	RelationCreateStorage(dst_rlocator, relpersistence, false);

	/* copy main fork. */
	RelationCopyStorageUsingBuffer(src_rlocator, dst_rlocator, MAIN_FORKNUM,
								   permanent);

	/* copy those extra forks that exist */
	for (ForkNumber forkNum = MAIN_FORKNUM + 1;
		 forkNum <= MAX_FORKNUM; forkNum++)
	{
		if (smgrexists(src_rel, forkNum))
		{
			smgrcreate(dst_rel, forkNum, false);

			/*
			 * WAL log creation if the relation is persistent, or this is the
			 * init fork of an unlogged relation.
			 */
			if (permanent || forkNum == INIT_FORKNUM)
				log_smgrcreate(&dst_rlocator, forkNum);

			/* Copy a fork's data, block by block. */
			RelationCopyStorageUsingBuffer(src_rlocator, dst_rlocator, forkNum,
										   permanent);
		}
	}
}

/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 *		FlushDatabaseBuffers
 *
 *		This function writes all dirty pages of a database out to disk
 *		(or more accurately, out to kernel disk buffers), ensuring that the
 *		kernel has an up-to-date view of the database.
 *
 *		Generally, the caller should be holding an appropriate lock to ensure
 *		no other backend is active in the target database; otherwise more
 *		pages could get dirtied.
 *
 *		Note we don't worry about flushing any pages of temporary relations.
 *		It's assumed these wouldn't be interesting.
 * --------------------------------------------------------------------
 */
void
FlushDatabaseBuffers(Oid dbid)
{
	int			i;
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	for (i = 0; i < NBuffers; i++)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;

		bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(i);

		/*
		 * As in DropRelationBuffers, an unlocked precheck should be safe and
		 * saves some cycles.
		 */
		if (bufHdr->tag.dbOid != dbid)
			continue;

		/* Make sure we can handle the pin */
		ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();
		ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if (bufHdr->tag.dbOid == dbid &&
			(buf_state & (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY)) == (BM_VALID | BM_DIRTY))
		{
			PinBuffer_Locked(bufHdr);
			LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr), LW_SHARED);
			FlushBuffer(bufHdr, NULL, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);
			LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr));
			UnpinBuffer(bufHdr);
		}
		else
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	}
}

/*
 * Flush a previously, shared or exclusively, locked and pinned buffer to the
 * OS.
 */
void
FlushOneBuffer(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;

	/* currently not needed, but no fundamental reason not to support */
	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(buffer));

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	Assert(LWLockHeldByMe(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr)));

	FlushBuffer(bufHdr, NULL, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);
}

/*
 * ReleaseBuffer -- release the pin on a buffer
 */
void
ReleaseBuffer(Buffer buffer)
{
	if (!BufferIsValid(buffer))
		elog(ERROR, "bad buffer ID: %d", buffer);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		UnpinLocalBuffer(buffer);
	else
		UnpinBuffer(GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1));
}

/*
 * UnlockReleaseBuffer -- release the content lock and pin on a buffer
 *
 * This is just a shorthand for a common combination.
 */
void
UnlockReleaseBuffer(Buffer buffer)
{
	LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_UNLOCK);
	ReleaseBuffer(buffer);
}

/*
 * IncrBufferRefCount
 *		Increment the pin count on a buffer that we have *already* pinned
 *		at least once.
 *
 *		This function cannot be used on a buffer we do not have pinned,
 *		because it doesn't change the shared buffer state.
 */
void
IncrBufferRefCount(Buffer buffer)
{
	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1]++;
	else
	{
		PrivateRefCountEntry *ref;

		ref = GetPrivateRefCountEntry(buffer, true);
		Assert(ref != NULL);
		ref->refcount++;
	}
	ResourceOwnerRememberBuffer(CurrentResourceOwner, buffer);
}

/*
 * MarkBufferDirtyHint
 *
 *	Mark a buffer dirty for non-critical changes.
 *
 * This is essentially the same as MarkBufferDirty, except:
 *
 * 1. The caller does not write WAL; so if checksums are enabled, we may need
 *	  to write an XLOG_FPI_FOR_HINT WAL record to protect against torn pages.
 * 2. The caller might have only share-lock instead of exclusive-lock on the
 *	  buffer's content lock.
 * 3. This function does not guarantee that the buffer is always marked dirty
 *	  (due to a race condition), so it cannot be used for important changes.
 */
void
MarkBufferDirtyHint(Buffer buffer, bool buffer_std)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	Page		page = BufferGetPage(buffer);

	if (!BufferIsValid(buffer))
		elog(ERROR, "bad buffer ID: %d", buffer);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		MarkLocalBufferDirty(buffer);
		return;
	}

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	Assert(GetPrivateRefCount(buffer) > 0);
	/* here, either share or exclusive lock is OK */
	Assert(LWLockHeldByMe(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr)));

	/*
	 * This routine might get called many times on the same page, if we are
	 * making the first scan after commit of an xact that added/deleted many
	 * tuples. So, be as quick as we can if the buffer is already dirty.  We
	 * do this by not acquiring spinlock if it looks like the status bits are
	 * already set.  Since we make this test unlocked, there's a chance we
	 * might fail to notice that the flags have just been cleared, and failed
	 * to reset them, due to memory-ordering issues.  But since this function
	 * is only intended to be used in cases where failing to write out the
	 * data would be harmless anyway, it doesn't really matter.
	 */
	if ((pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & (BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED)) !=
		(BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED))
	{
		XLogRecPtr	lsn = InvalidXLogRecPtr;
		bool		dirtied = false;
		bool		delayChkptFlags = false;
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * If we need to protect hint bit updates from torn writes, WAL-log a
		 * full page image of the page. This full page image is only necessary
		 * if the hint bit update is the first change to the page since the
		 * last checkpoint.
		 *
		 * We don't check full_page_writes here because that logic is included
		 * when we call XLogInsert() since the value changes dynamically.
		 */
		if (XLogHintBitIsNeeded() &&
			(pg_atomic_read_u32(&bufHdr->state) & BM_PERMANENT))
		{
			/*
			 * If we must not write WAL, due to a relfilelocator-specific
			 * condition or being in recovery, don't dirty the page.  We can
			 * set the hint, just not dirty the page as a result so the hint
			 * is lost when we evict the page or shutdown.
			 *
			 * See src/backend/storage/page/README for longer discussion.
			 */
			if (RecoveryInProgress() ||
				RelFileLocatorSkippingWAL(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag)))
				return;

			/*
			 * If the block is already dirty because we either made a change
			 * or set a hint already, then we don't need to write a full page
			 * image.  Note that aggressive cleaning of blocks dirtied by hint
			 * bit setting would increase the call rate. Bulk setting of hint
			 * bits would reduce the call rate...
			 *
			 * We must issue the WAL record before we mark the buffer dirty.
			 * Otherwise we might write the page before we write the WAL. That
			 * causes a race condition, since a checkpoint might occur between
			 * writing the WAL record and marking the buffer dirty. We solve
			 * that with a kluge, but one that is already in use during
			 * transaction commit to prevent race conditions. Basically, we
			 * simply prevent the checkpoint WAL record from being written
			 * until we have marked the buffer dirty. We don't start the
			 * checkpoint flush until we have marked dirty, so our checkpoint
			 * must flush the change to disk successfully or the checkpoint
			 * never gets written, so crash recovery will fix.
			 *
			 * It's possible we may enter here without an xid, so it is
			 * essential that CreateCheckPoint waits for virtual transactions
			 * rather than full transactionids.
			 */
			Assert((MyProc->delayChkptFlags & DELAY_CHKPT_START) == 0);
			MyProc->delayChkptFlags |= DELAY_CHKPT_START;
			delayChkptFlags = true;
			lsn = XLogSaveBufferForHint(buffer, buffer_std);
		}

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);

		if (!(buf_state & BM_DIRTY))
		{
			dirtied = true;		/* Means "will be dirtied by this action" */

			/*
			 * Set the page LSN if we wrote a backup block. We aren't supposed
			 * to set this when only holding a share lock but as long as we
			 * serialise it somehow we're OK. We choose to set LSN while
			 * holding the buffer header lock, which causes any reader of an
			 * LSN who holds only a share lock to also obtain a buffer header
			 * lock before using PageGetLSN(), which is enforced in
			 * BufferGetLSNAtomic().
			 *
			 * If checksums are enabled, you might think we should reset the
			 * checksum here. That will happen when the page is written
			 * sometime later in this checkpoint cycle.
			 */
			if (!XLogRecPtrIsInvalid(lsn))
				PageSetLSN(page, lsn);
		}

		buf_state |= BM_DIRTY | BM_JUST_DIRTIED;
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);

		if (delayChkptFlags)
			MyProc->delayChkptFlags &= ~DELAY_CHKPT_START;

		if (dirtied)
		{
			VacuumPageDirty++;
			pgBufferUsage.shared_blks_dirtied++;
			if (VacuumCostActive)
				VacuumCostBalance += VacuumCostPageDirty;
		}
	}
}

/*
 * Release buffer content locks for shared buffers.
 *
 * Used to clean up after errors.
 *
 * Currently, we can expect that lwlock.c's LWLockReleaseAll() took care
 * of releasing buffer content locks per se; the only thing we need to deal
 * with here is clearing any PIN_COUNT request that was in progress.
 */
void
UnlockBuffers(void)
{
	BufferDesc *buf = PinCountWaitBuf;

	if (buf)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;

		buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

		/*
		 * Don't complain if flag bit not set; it could have been reset but we
		 * got a cancel/die interrupt before getting the signal.
		 */
		if ((buf_state & BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER) != 0 &&
			buf->wait_backend_pgprocno == MyProcNumber)
			buf_state &= ~BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER;

		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

		PinCountWaitBuf = NULL;
	}
}

/*
 * Acquire or release the content_lock for the buffer.
 */
void
LockBuffer(Buffer buffer, int mode)
{
	BufferDesc *buf;

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		return;					/* local buffers need no lock */

	buf = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	if (mode == BUFFER_LOCK_UNLOCK)
		LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf));
	else if (mode == BUFFER_LOCK_SHARE)
		LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf), LW_SHARED);
	else if (mode == BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE)
		LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf), LW_EXCLUSIVE);
	else
		elog(ERROR, "unrecognized buffer lock mode: %d", mode);
}

/*
 * Acquire the content_lock for the buffer, but only if we don't have to wait.
 *
 * This assumes the caller wants BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE mode.
 */
bool
ConditionalLockBuffer(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *buf;

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		return true;			/* act as though we got it */

	buf = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	return LWLockConditionalAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(buf),
									LW_EXCLUSIVE);
}

/*
 * Verify that this backend is pinning the buffer exactly once.
 *
 * NOTE: Like in BufferIsPinned(), what we check here is that *this* backend
 * holds a pin on the buffer.  We do not care whether some other backend does.
 */
void
CheckBufferIsPinnedOnce(Buffer buffer)
{
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		if (LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1] != 1)
			elog(ERROR, "incorrect local pin count: %d",
				 LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1]);
	}
	else
	{
		if (GetPrivateRefCount(buffer) != 1)
			elog(ERROR, "incorrect local pin count: %d",
				 GetPrivateRefCount(buffer));
	}
}

/*
 * LockBufferForCleanup - lock a buffer in preparation for deleting items
 *
 * Items may be deleted from a disk page only when the caller (a) holds an
 * exclusive lock on the buffer and (b) has observed that no other backend
 * holds a pin on the buffer.  If there is a pin, then the other backend
 * might have a pointer into the buffer (for example, a heapscan reference
 * to an item --- see README for more details).  It's OK if a pin is added
 * after the cleanup starts, however; the newly-arrived backend will be
 * unable to look at the page until we release the exclusive lock.
 *
 * To implement this protocol, a would-be deleter must pin the buffer and
 * then call LockBufferForCleanup().  LockBufferForCleanup() is similar to
 * LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE), except that it loops until
 * it has successfully observed pin count = 1.
 */
void
LockBufferForCleanup(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	TimestampTz waitStart = 0;
	bool		waiting = false;
	bool		logged_recovery_conflict = false;

	Assert(BufferIsPinned(buffer));
	Assert(PinCountWaitBuf == NULL);

	CheckBufferIsPinnedOnce(buffer);

	/* Nobody else to wait for */
	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		return;

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	for (;;)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;

		/* Try to acquire lock */
		LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

		Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);
		if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 1)
		{
			/* Successfully acquired exclusive lock with pincount 1 */
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);

			/*
			 * Emit the log message if recovery conflict on buffer pin was
			 * resolved but the startup process waited longer than
			 * deadlock_timeout for it.
			 */
			if (logged_recovery_conflict)
				LogRecoveryConflict(PROCSIG_RECOVERY_CONFLICT_BUFFERPIN,
									waitStart, GetCurrentTimestamp(),
									NULL, false);

			if (waiting)
			{
				/* reset ps display to remove the suffix if we added one */
				set_ps_display_remove_suffix();
				waiting = false;
			}
			return;
		}
		/* Failed, so mark myself as waiting for pincount 1 */
		if (buf_state & BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER)
		{
			UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
			LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_UNLOCK);
			elog(ERROR, "multiple backends attempting to wait for pincount 1");
		}
		bufHdr->wait_backend_pgprocno = MyProcNumber;
		PinCountWaitBuf = bufHdr;
		buf_state |= BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER;
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
		LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_UNLOCK);

		/* Wait to be signaled by UnpinBuffer() */
		if (InHotStandby)
		{
			if (!waiting)
			{
				/* adjust the process title to indicate that it's waiting */
				set_ps_display_suffix("waiting");
				waiting = true;
			}

			/*
			 * Emit the log message if the startup process is waiting longer
			 * than deadlock_timeout for recovery conflict on buffer pin.
			 *
			 * Skip this if first time through because the startup process has
			 * not started waiting yet in this case. So, the wait start
			 * timestamp is set after this logic.
			 */
			if (waitStart != 0 && !logged_recovery_conflict)
			{
				TimestampTz now = GetCurrentTimestamp();

				if (TimestampDifferenceExceeds(waitStart, now,
											   DeadlockTimeout))
				{
					LogRecoveryConflict(PROCSIG_RECOVERY_CONFLICT_BUFFERPIN,
										waitStart, now, NULL, true);
					logged_recovery_conflict = true;
				}
			}

			/*
			 * Set the wait start timestamp if logging is enabled and first
			 * time through.
			 */
			if (log_recovery_conflict_waits && waitStart == 0)
				waitStart = GetCurrentTimestamp();

			/* Publish the bufid that Startup process waits on */
			SetStartupBufferPinWaitBufId(buffer - 1);
			/* Set alarm and then wait to be signaled by UnpinBuffer() */
			ResolveRecoveryConflictWithBufferPin();
			/* Reset the published bufid */
			SetStartupBufferPinWaitBufId(-1);
		}
		else
			ProcWaitForSignal(WAIT_EVENT_BUFFER_PIN);

		/*
		 * Remove flag marking us as waiter. Normally this will not be set
		 * anymore, but ProcWaitForSignal() can return for other signals as
		 * well.  We take care to only reset the flag if we're the waiter, as
		 * theoretically another backend could have started waiting. That's
		 * impossible with the current usages due to table level locking, but
		 * better be safe.
		 */
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
		if ((buf_state & BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER) != 0 &&
			bufHdr->wait_backend_pgprocno == MyProcNumber)
			buf_state &= ~BM_PIN_COUNT_WAITER;
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);

		PinCountWaitBuf = NULL;
		/* Loop back and try again */
	}
}

/*
 * Check called from ProcessRecoveryConflictInterrupts() when Startup process
 * requests cancellation of all pin holders that are blocking it.
 */
bool
HoldingBufferPinThatDelaysRecovery(void)
{
	int			bufid = GetStartupBufferPinWaitBufId();

	/*
	 * If we get woken slowly then it's possible that the Startup process was
	 * already woken by other backends before we got here. Also possible that
	 * we get here by multiple interrupts or interrupts at inappropriate
	 * times, so make sure we do nothing if the bufid is not set.
	 */
	if (bufid < 0)
		return false;

	if (GetPrivateRefCount(bufid + 1) > 0)
		return true;

	return false;
}

/*
 * ConditionalLockBufferForCleanup - as above, but don't wait to get the lock
 *
 * We won't loop, but just check once to see if the pin count is OK.  If
 * not, return false with no lock held.
 */
bool
ConditionalLockBufferForCleanup(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	uint32		buf_state,
				refcount;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		refcount = LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1];
		/* There should be exactly one pin */
		Assert(refcount > 0);
		if (refcount != 1)
			return false;
		/* Nobody else to wait for */
		return true;
	}

	/* There should be exactly one local pin */
	refcount = GetPrivateRefCount(buffer);
	Assert(refcount);
	if (refcount != 1)
		return false;

	/* Try to acquire lock */
	if (!ConditionalLockBuffer(buffer))
		return false;

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);
	refcount = BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state);

	Assert(refcount > 0);
	if (refcount == 1)
	{
		/* Successfully acquired exclusive lock with pincount 1 */
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
		return true;
	}

	/* Failed, so release the lock */
	UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	LockBuffer(buffer, BUFFER_LOCK_UNLOCK);
	return false;
}

/*
 * IsBufferCleanupOK - as above, but we already have the lock
 *
 * Check whether it's OK to perform cleanup on a buffer we've already
 * locked.  If we observe that the pin count is 1, our exclusive lock
 * happens to be a cleanup lock, and we can proceed with anything that
 * would have been allowable had we sought a cleanup lock originally.
 */
bool
IsBufferCleanupOK(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr;
	uint32		buf_state;

	Assert(BufferIsValid(buffer));

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
	{
		/* There should be exactly one pin */
		if (LocalRefCount[-buffer - 1] != 1)
			return false;
		/* Nobody else to wait for */
		return true;
	}

	/* There should be exactly one local pin */
	if (GetPrivateRefCount(buffer) != 1)
		return false;

	bufHdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);

	/* caller must hold exclusive lock on buffer */
	Assert(LWLockHeldByMeInMode(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(bufHdr),
								LW_EXCLUSIVE));

	buf_state = LockBufHdr(bufHdr);

	Assert(BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0);
	if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) == 1)
	{
		/* pincount is OK. */
		UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
		return true;
	}

	UnlockBufHdr(bufHdr, buf_state);
	return false;
}


/*
 *	Functions for buffer I/O handling
 *
 *	Note: We assume that nested buffer I/O never occurs.
 *	i.e at most one BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS bit is set per proc.
 *
 *	Also note that these are used only for shared buffers, not local ones.
 */

/*
 * WaitIO -- Block until the IO_IN_PROGRESS flag on 'buf' is cleared.
 */
static void
WaitIO(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	ConditionVariable *cv = BufferDescriptorGetIOCV(buf);

	ConditionVariablePrepareToSleep(cv);
	for (;;)
	{
		uint32		buf_state;

		/*
		 * It may not be necessary to acquire the spinlock to check the flag
		 * here, but since this test is essential for correctness, we'd better
		 * play it safe.
		 */
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);
		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

		if (!(buf_state & BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS))
			break;
		ConditionVariableSleep(cv, WAIT_EVENT_BUFFER_IO);
	}
	ConditionVariableCancelSleep();
}

/*
 * StartBufferIO: begin I/O on this buffer
 *	(Assumptions)
 *	My process is executing no IO
 *	The buffer is Pinned
 *
 * In some scenarios there are race conditions in which multiple backends
 * could attempt the same I/O operation concurrently.  If someone else
 * has already started I/O on this buffer then we will block on the
 * I/O condition variable until he's done.
 *
 * Input operations are only attempted on buffers that are not BM_VALID,
 * and output operations only on buffers that are BM_VALID and BM_DIRTY,
 * so we can always tell if the work is already done.
 *
 * Returns true if we successfully marked the buffer as I/O busy,
 * false if someone else already did the work.
 *
 * If nowait is true, then we don't wait for an I/O to be finished by another
 * backend.  In that case, false indicates either that the I/O was already
 * finished, or is still in progress.  This is useful for callers that want to
 * find out if they can perform the I/O as part of a larger operation, without
 * waiting for the answer or distinguishing the reasons why not.
 */
static bool
StartBufferIO(BufferDesc *buf, bool forInput, bool nowait)
{
	uint32		buf_state;

	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);

	for (;;)
	{
		buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

		if (!(buf_state & BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS))
			break;
		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
		if (nowait)
			return false;
		WaitIO(buf);
	}

	/* Once we get here, there is definitely no I/O active on this buffer */

	if (forInput ? (buf_state & BM_VALID) : !(buf_state & BM_DIRTY))
	{
		/* someone else already did the I/O */
		UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);
		return false;
	}

	buf_state |= BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS;
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	ResourceOwnerRememberBufferIO(CurrentResourceOwner,
								  BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf));

	return true;
}

/*
 * TerminateBufferIO: release a buffer we were doing I/O on
 *	(Assumptions)
 *	My process is executing IO for the buffer
 *	BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS bit is set for the buffer
 *	The buffer is Pinned
 *
 * If clear_dirty is true and BM_JUST_DIRTIED is not set, we clear the
 * buffer's BM_DIRTY flag.  This is appropriate when terminating a
 * successful write.  The check on BM_JUST_DIRTIED is necessary to avoid
 * marking the buffer clean if it was re-dirtied while we were writing.
 *
 * set_flag_bits gets ORed into the buffer's flags.  It must include
 * BM_IO_ERROR in a failure case.  For successful completion it could
 * be 0, or BM_VALID if we just finished reading in the page.
 *
 * If forget_owner is true, we release the buffer I/O from the current
 * resource owner. (forget_owner=false is used when the resource owner itself
 * is being released)
 */
static void
TerminateBufferIO(BufferDesc *buf, bool clear_dirty, uint32 set_flag_bits,
				  bool forget_owner)
{
	uint32		buf_state;

	buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf);

	Assert(buf_state & BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS);

	buf_state &= ~(BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS | BM_IO_ERROR);
	if (clear_dirty && !(buf_state & BM_JUST_DIRTIED))
		buf_state &= ~(BM_DIRTY | BM_CHECKPOINT_NEEDED);

	buf_state |= set_flag_bits;
	UnlockBufHdr(buf, buf_state);

	if (forget_owner)
		ResourceOwnerForgetBufferIO(CurrentResourceOwner,
									BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(buf));

	ConditionVariableBroadcast(BufferDescriptorGetIOCV(buf));
}

/*
 * AbortBufferIO: Clean up active buffer I/O after an error.
 *
 *	All LWLocks we might have held have been released,
 *	but we haven't yet released buffer pins, so the buffer is still pinned.
 *
 *	If I/O was in progress, we always set BM_IO_ERROR, even though it's
 *	possible the error condition wasn't related to the I/O.
 *
 *  Note: this does not remove the buffer I/O from the resource owner.
 *  That's correct when we're releasing the whole resource owner, but
 *  beware if you use this in other contexts.
 */
static void
AbortBufferIO(Buffer buffer)
{
	BufferDesc *buf_hdr = GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1);
	uint32		buf_state;

	buf_state = LockBufHdr(buf_hdr);
	Assert(buf_state & (BM_IO_IN_PROGRESS | BM_TAG_VALID));

	if (!(buf_state & BM_VALID))
	{
		Assert(!(buf_state & BM_DIRTY));
		UnlockBufHdr(buf_hdr, buf_state);
	}
	else
	{
		Assert(buf_state & BM_DIRTY);
		UnlockBufHdr(buf_hdr, buf_state);

		/* Issue notice if this is not the first failure... */
		if (buf_state & BM_IO_ERROR)
		{
			/* Buffer is pinned, so we can read tag without spinlock */
			char	   *path;

			path = relpathperm(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&buf_hdr->tag),
							   BufTagGetForkNum(&buf_hdr->tag));
			ereport(WARNING,
					(errcode(ERRCODE_IO_ERROR),
					 errmsg("could not write block %u of %s",
							buf_hdr->tag.blockNum, path),
					 errdetail("Multiple failures --- write error might be permanent.")));
			pfree(path);
		}
	}

	TerminateBufferIO(buf_hdr, false, BM_IO_ERROR, false);
}

/*
 * Error context callback for errors occurring during shared buffer writes.
 */
static void
shared_buffer_write_error_callback(void *arg)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr = (BufferDesc *) arg;

	/* Buffer is pinned, so we can read the tag without locking the spinlock */
	if (bufHdr != NULL)
	{
		char	   *path = relpathperm(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag),
									   BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag));

		errcontext("writing block %u of relation %s",
				   bufHdr->tag.blockNum, path);
		pfree(path);
	}
}

/*
 * Error context callback for errors occurring during local buffer writes.
 */
static void
local_buffer_write_error_callback(void *arg)
{
	BufferDesc *bufHdr = (BufferDesc *) arg;

	if (bufHdr != NULL)
	{
		char	   *path = relpathbackend(BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&bufHdr->tag),
										  MyProcNumber,
										  BufTagGetForkNum(&bufHdr->tag));

		errcontext("writing block %u of relation %s",
				   bufHdr->tag.blockNum, path);
		pfree(path);
	}
}

/*
 * RelFileLocator qsort/bsearch comparator; see RelFileLocatorEquals.
 */
static int
rlocator_comparator(const void *p1, const void *p2)
{
	RelFileLocator n1 = *(const RelFileLocator *) p1;
	RelFileLocator n2 = *(const RelFileLocator *) p2;

	if (n1.relNumber < n2.relNumber)
		return -1;
	else if (n1.relNumber > n2.relNumber)
		return 1;

	if (n1.dbOid < n2.dbOid)
		return -1;
	else if (n1.dbOid > n2.dbOid)
		return 1;

	if (n1.spcOid < n2.spcOid)
		return -1;
	else if (n1.spcOid > n2.spcOid)
		return 1;
	else
		return 0;
}

/*
 * Lock buffer header - set BM_LOCKED in buffer state.
 */
uint32
LockBufHdr(BufferDesc *desc)
{
	SpinDelayStatus delayStatus;
	uint32		old_buf_state;

	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(BufferDescriptorGetBuffer(desc)));

	init_local_spin_delay(&delayStatus);

	while (true)
	{
		/* set BM_LOCKED flag */
		old_buf_state = pg_atomic_fetch_or_u32(&desc->state, BM_LOCKED);
		/* if it wasn't set before we're OK */
		if (!(old_buf_state & BM_LOCKED))
			break;
		perform_spin_delay(&delayStatus);
	}
	finish_spin_delay(&delayStatus);
	return old_buf_state | BM_LOCKED;
}

/*
 * Wait until the BM_LOCKED flag isn't set anymore and return the buffer's
 * state at that point.
 *
 * Obviously the buffer could be locked by the time the value is returned, so
 * this is primarily useful in CAS style loops.
 */
static uint32
WaitBufHdrUnlocked(BufferDesc *buf)
{
	SpinDelayStatus delayStatus;
	uint32		buf_state;

	init_local_spin_delay(&delayStatus);

	buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);

	while (buf_state & BM_LOCKED)
	{
		perform_spin_delay(&delayStatus);
		buf_state = pg_atomic_read_u32(&buf->state);
	}

	finish_spin_delay(&delayStatus);

	return buf_state;
}

/*
 * BufferTag comparator.
 */
static inline int
buffertag_comparator(const BufferTag *ba, const BufferTag *bb)
{
	int			ret;
	RelFileLocator rlocatora;
	RelFileLocator rlocatorb;

	rlocatora = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(ba);
	rlocatorb = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(bb);

	ret = rlocator_comparator(&rlocatora, &rlocatorb);

	if (ret != 0)
		return ret;

	if (BufTagGetForkNum(ba) < BufTagGetForkNum(bb))
		return -1;
	if (BufTagGetForkNum(ba) > BufTagGetForkNum(bb))
		return 1;

	if (ba->blockNum < bb->blockNum)
		return -1;
	if (ba->blockNum > bb->blockNum)
		return 1;

	return 0;
}

/*
 * Comparator determining the writeout order in a checkpoint.
 *
 * It is important that tablespaces are compared first, the logic balancing
 * writes between tablespaces relies on it.
 */
static inline int
ckpt_buforder_comparator(const CkptSortItem *a, const CkptSortItem *b)
{
	/* compare tablespace */
	if (a->tsId < b->tsId)
		return -1;
	else if (a->tsId > b->tsId)
		return 1;
	/* compare relation */
	if (a->relNumber < b->relNumber)
		return -1;
	else if (a->relNumber > b->relNumber)
		return 1;
	/* compare fork */
	else if (a->forkNum < b->forkNum)
		return -1;
	else if (a->forkNum > b->forkNum)
		return 1;
	/* compare block number */
	else if (a->blockNum < b->blockNum)
		return -1;
	else if (a->blockNum > b->blockNum)
		return 1;
	/* equal page IDs are unlikely, but not impossible */
	return 0;
}

/*
 * Comparator for a Min-Heap over the per-tablespace checkpoint completion
 * progress.
 */
static int
ts_ckpt_progress_comparator(Datum a, Datum b, void *arg)
{
	CkptTsStatus *sa = (CkptTsStatus *) a;
	CkptTsStatus *sb = (CkptTsStatus *) b;

	/* we want a min-heap, so return 1 for the a < b */
	if (sa->progress < sb->progress)
		return 1;
	else if (sa->progress == sb->progress)
		return 0;
	else
		return -1;
}

/*
 * Initialize a writeback context, discarding potential previous state.
 *
 * *max_pending is a pointer instead of an immediate value, so the coalesce
 * limits can easily changed by the GUC mechanism, and so calling code does
 * not have to check the current configuration. A value of 0 means that no
 * writeback control will be performed.
 */
void
WritebackContextInit(WritebackContext *context, int *max_pending)
{
	Assert(*max_pending <= WRITEBACK_MAX_PENDING_FLUSHES);

	context->max_pending = max_pending;
	context->nr_pending = 0;
}

/*
 * Add buffer to list of pending writeback requests.
 */
void
ScheduleBufferTagForWriteback(WritebackContext *wb_context, IOContext io_context,
							  BufferTag *tag)
{
	PendingWriteback *pending;

	if (io_direct_flags & IO_DIRECT_DATA)
		return;

	/*
	 * Add buffer to the pending writeback array, unless writeback control is
	 * disabled.
	 */
	if (*wb_context->max_pending > 0)
	{
		Assert(*wb_context->max_pending <= WRITEBACK_MAX_PENDING_FLUSHES);

		pending = &wb_context->pending_writebacks[wb_context->nr_pending++];

		pending->tag = *tag;
	}

	/*
	 * Perform pending flushes if the writeback limit is exceeded. This
	 * includes the case where previously an item has been added, but control
	 * is now disabled.
	 */
	if (wb_context->nr_pending >= *wb_context->max_pending)
		IssuePendingWritebacks(wb_context, io_context);
}

#define ST_SORT sort_pending_writebacks
#define ST_ELEMENT_TYPE PendingWriteback
#define ST_COMPARE(a, b) buffertag_comparator(&a->tag, &b->tag)
#define ST_SCOPE static
#define ST_DEFINE
#include <lib/sort_template.h>

/*
 * Issue all pending writeback requests, previously scheduled with
 * ScheduleBufferTagForWriteback, to the OS.
 *
 * Because this is only used to improve the OSs IO scheduling we try to never
 * error out - it's just a hint.
 */
void
IssuePendingWritebacks(WritebackContext *wb_context, IOContext io_context)
{
	instr_time	io_start;
	int			i;

	if (wb_context->nr_pending == 0)
		return;

	/*
	 * Executing the writes in-order can make them a lot faster, and allows to
	 * merge writeback requests to consecutive blocks into larger writebacks.
	 */
	sort_pending_writebacks(wb_context->pending_writebacks,
							wb_context->nr_pending);

	io_start = pgstat_prepare_io_time(track_io_timing);

	/*
	 * Coalesce neighbouring writes, but nothing else. For that we iterate
	 * through the, now sorted, array of pending flushes, and look forward to
	 * find all neighbouring (or identical) writes.
	 */
	for (i = 0; i < wb_context->nr_pending; i++)
	{
		PendingWriteback *cur;
		PendingWriteback *next;
		SMgrRelation reln;
		int			ahead;
		BufferTag	tag;
		RelFileLocator currlocator;
		Size		nblocks = 1;

		cur = &wb_context->pending_writebacks[i];
		tag = cur->tag;
		currlocator = BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&tag);

		/*
		 * Peek ahead, into following writeback requests, to see if they can
		 * be combined with the current one.
		 */
		for (ahead = 0; i + ahead + 1 < wb_context->nr_pending; ahead++)
		{

			next = &wb_context->pending_writebacks[i + ahead + 1];

			/* different file, stop */
			if (!RelFileLocatorEquals(currlocator,
									  BufTagGetRelFileLocator(&next->tag)) ||
				BufTagGetForkNum(&cur->tag) != BufTagGetForkNum(&next->tag))
				break;

			/* ok, block queued twice, skip */
			if (cur->tag.blockNum == next->tag.blockNum)
				continue;

			/* only merge consecutive writes */
			if (cur->tag.blockNum + 1 != next->tag.blockNum)
				break;

			nblocks++;
			cur = next;
		}

		i += ahead;

		/* and finally tell the kernel to write the data to storage */
		reln = smgropen(currlocator, INVALID_PROC_NUMBER);
		smgrwriteback(reln, BufTagGetForkNum(&tag), tag.blockNum, nblocks);
	}

	/*
	 * Assume that writeback requests are only issued for buffers containing
	 * blocks of permanent relations.
	 */
	pgstat_count_io_op_time(IOOBJECT_RELATION, io_context,
							IOOP_WRITEBACK, io_start, wb_context->nr_pending);

	wb_context->nr_pending = 0;
}

/* ResourceOwner callbacks */

static void
ResOwnerReleaseBufferIO(Datum res)
{
	Buffer		buffer = DatumGetInt32(res);

	AbortBufferIO(buffer);
}

static char *
ResOwnerPrintBufferIO(Datum res)
{
	Buffer		buffer = DatumGetInt32(res);

	return psprintf("lost track of buffer IO on buffer %d", buffer);
}

static void
ResOwnerReleaseBufferPin(Datum res)
{
	Buffer		buffer = DatumGetInt32(res);

	/* Like ReleaseBuffer, but don't call ResourceOwnerForgetBuffer */
	if (!BufferIsValid(buffer))
		elog(ERROR, "bad buffer ID: %d", buffer);

	if (BufferIsLocal(buffer))
		UnpinLocalBufferNoOwner(buffer);
	else
		UnpinBufferNoOwner(GetBufferDescriptor(buffer - 1));
}

static char *
ResOwnerPrintBufferPin(Datum res)
{
	return DebugPrintBufferRefcount(DatumGetInt32(res));
}

/*
 * Try to evict the current block in a shared buffer.
 *
 * This function is intended for testing/development use only!
 *
 * To succeed, the buffer must not be pinned on entry, so if the caller had a
 * particular block in mind, it might already have been replaced by some other
 * block by the time this function runs.  It's also unpinned on return, so the
 * buffer might be occupied again by the time control is returned, potentially
 * even by the same block.  This inherent raciness without other interlocking
 * makes the function unsuitable for non-testing usage.
 *
 * Returns true if the buffer was valid and it has now been made invalid.
 * Returns false if it wasn't valid, if it couldn't be evicted due to a pin,
 * or if the buffer becomes dirty again while we're trying to write it out.
 */
bool
EvictUnpinnedBuffer(Buffer buf)
{
	BufferDesc *desc;
	uint32		buf_state;
	bool		result;

	/* Make sure we can pin the buffer. */
	ResourceOwnerEnlarge(CurrentResourceOwner);
	ReservePrivateRefCountEntry();

	Assert(!BufferIsLocal(buf));
	desc = GetBufferDescriptor(buf - 1);

	/* Lock the header and check if it's valid. */
	buf_state = LockBufHdr(desc);
	if ((buf_state & BM_VALID) == 0)
	{
		UnlockBufHdr(desc, buf_state);
		return false;
	}

	/* Check that it's not pinned already. */
	if (BUF_STATE_GET_REFCOUNT(buf_state) > 0)
	{
		UnlockBufHdr(desc, buf_state);
		return false;
	}

	PinBuffer_Locked(desc);		/* releases spinlock */

	/* If it was dirty, try to clean it once. */
	if (buf_state & BM_DIRTY)
	{
		LWLockAcquire(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(desc), LW_SHARED);
		FlushBuffer(desc, NULL, IOOBJECT_RELATION, IOCONTEXT_NORMAL);
		LWLockRelease(BufferDescriptorGetContentLock(desc));
	}

	/* This will return false if it becomes dirty or someone else pins it. */
	result = InvalidateVictimBuffer(desc);

	UnpinBuffer(desc);

	return result;
}